Russia–United States relations

Russia–United States relations

Russia
United States
Diplomatic Mission
Russian Embassy, Washington, D.C. United States Embassy, Moscow

Russia–United States relations is the bilateral relationship between Russia, a successor state to the Soviet Union, and the United States of America. Russia and the United States maintain diplomatic relations, but in 2014, already strained relations between Russia and the U.S., as well as other countries allied with the U.S., greatly deteriorated due to the Ukrainian crisis and the Syrian Civil War, which caused observers to characterize those as assuming an adversarial nature, or the advent of Cold War II,[1][2][3] with mutual trade and investment being significantly restricted. Despite the tensions between both countries, the United States and Russia are still willing to cooperate and work together on international issues such as security and international peace.

Country comparison

Russia Russia United States United States
Area 17,075,400 km² (6,592,800 sq mi) 9,526,468 km² (3,794,101 sq mi)[4]
Population 146,267,999 317,552,001
Population density 8.3/km² (21.5/sq mi) 33.7/km² (87.4/sq mi)
Capital Moscow Washington, D.C.
Largest Metropolitan Areas Moscow (16,800,000) New York City (23,632,722)
Government Federal semi-presidential
constitutional republic 		Federal presidential constitutional republic
two-party system
First leader Boris Yeltsin George Washington
Current leader Vladimir Putin Barack Obama
Official languages Russian English
GDP (nominal) $1.857 trillion $17.419 trillion
External debt (nominal) $597.254 billion (2014 Q4) $17.114 trillion (2014 Q4)
GDP (PPP) $3.565 trillion $17.419 trillion
GDP (nominal) per capita $12,926 $54,597
GDP (PPP) per capita $24,805 $54,597
Human Development Index 0.788 (high) 0.937 (very high)
Foreign exchange reserves 465,228 (millions of USD) 142,898 (millions of USD)
Military expenditures $87.8 billion $612 billion
Nuclear warheads

active/total

 2500 / 8000 (2015) 1900 / 4760 (2015)

History

Background: the United States and the Soviet Union

In the late 1980s, Eastern European nations took advantage of the relaxation of Soviet control under Mikhail Gorbachev and began to break away from communist rule.

On 3 December 1989, Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit.[5] In December 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved and the Commonwealth of Independent States was formed.

With the ending of Communism, relations between Russia and the United States, already greatly improved in the final years of the USSR, developed further.

Putin and George W. Bush (January 2001-January 2009)

During the presidencies of Vladimir Putin, who assumed the top office on the last day of 1999, and U.S. president George W. Bush, the U.S. and Russia began to have serious disagreements. Under Putin, Russia became more assertive in international affairs; under Bush, the U.S. took an increasingly unilateral course in its foreign policy in the wake of the September 11 attacks. Nevertheless, Putin and Bush were said to have established good personal relations.[6][7]

In 2002, the U.S. withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in order to move forward with plans for a missile defense system. Putin called the decision a mistake. Russia strongly opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq, though without exercising its veto in the United Nations Security Council. Russia has regarded the expansion of NATO into the old Eastern Bloc, and U.S. efforts to gain access to Central Asian oil and natural gas as a potentially hostile encroachment on Russia's sphere of influence.

Controversy over U.S. plan to station missiles in Poland

In March 2007, the U.S. announced plans to build an anti-ballistic missile defense installation in Poland along with a radar station in the Czech Republic. Both nations were former Warsaw Pact members. U.S. officials said that the system was intended to protect the United States and Europe from possible nuclear missile attacks by Iran or North Korea. Russia, however, viewed the new system as a potential threat and, in response, tested a long-range intercontinental ballistic missile, the RS-24, which it claimed could defeat any defense system. Vladimir Putin warned the U.S. that these new tensions could turn Europe into a "powder keg". On 3 June 2007, Putin warned that if the U.S. built the missile defense system, Russia would consider targeting missiles at Poland and the Czech Republic.[8]

On 16 October 2007, Vladimir Putin visited Iran to discuss Russia's aid to Iran's nuclear power program and "insisted that the use of force was unacceptable."[9] On October 17, Bush stated "if you're interested in avoiding World War III, it seems like you ought to be interested in preventing them from having the knowledge necessary to make a nuclear weapon," understood as a message to Putin.[10] A week later Putin compared U.S. plans to put up a missile defense system near Russia's border as analogous to when the Soviet Union deployed missiles in Cuba, prompting the Cuban Missile Crisis.[11]

On 14 February 2008, Vladimir Putin said Russia might have to retarget some of its missiles towards the missile defense system: "If it appears, we will be forced to respond appropriately – we will have to retarget part of our systems against those missiles." He also said that missiles might be redirected towards Ukraine if they went ahead with plans to build NATO bases within their territory, saying that "We will be compelled to aim our missiles at facilities that we consider a threat to our national security, and I am putting this plainly now so that the blame for this is not shifted later,"[12]

On 8 July 2008, Russia announced that if a U.S. anti-missile shield is deployed near the Russian border, they will react militarily. The statement from the Russian foreign ministry said "If a U.S. strategic anti-missile shield starts to be deployed near our borders, we will be forced to react not in a diplomatic fashion but with military-technical means." Later, Russia's ambassador to the United Nations Vitaly Churkin stated that "military-technical means" does not mean military action, but more likely a change in Russia's strategic posture, perhaps by redeploying its own missiles.[13]

On 14 August 2008, the U.S. and Poland agreed to have 10 two-stage missile interceptors – made by Orbital Sciences Corporation – placed in Poland, as part of a missile shield to defend Europe and the U.S. from a possible missile attack by Iran. In return, the U.S. agreed to move a battery of MIM-104 Patriot missiles to Poland. The missile battery would be staffed – at least temporarily – by U.S. Military personnel. The U.S. also pledged to defend Poland – a NATO member – quicker than NATO would in the event of an attack. Additionally, the Czech Republic recently agreed to allow the placement of a radar-tracking station in their country, despite public opinion polls showing that the majority of Czechs are against the plans and only 18% support it.[14] The radar-tracking station in the Czech Republic would also be part of the missile defense shield. After the agreement was announced, Russian officials said defences on Russia's borders would be increased and that they foresee harm in bilateral relations with the United States[15]

On 5 November 2008, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in his first annual address to the Federal Assembly of Russia promised to deploy Iskander short-range missilies to Kaliningrad, near the border with American-backed Poland.[16]

Russian-Georgian clash

Main article: Russia–Georgia war

In August 2008, American-Russian relations were strained, when Russia invaded Georgia. Russia claimed that it was a mission to protect Georgian separatist regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia from Georgian bombing of civilian areas. The United States supported Georgia in the conflict, sending humanitarian and military aid to Georgia and assisting with the withdrawal of Georgian troops from Iraq.

After the conflict, in 2009, U.S. Vice President Biden visited Georgia then said that the Russians "have a shrinking population base, have a withering economy, have a banking sector and structure that is not likely to be able to withstand the next 15 years."[17]

Russian-Venezuelan military cooperation

On 25 November 2008, a Russian naval fleet arrived in Venezuela, a nation the U.S. considers to be part of its sphere of influence. Russian war vessels- including the Battlecruiser Peter the Great, which is equipped with missiles- arrived in the port of La Guaira to conduct joint naval exercises with the Venezuelan navy. The incident is seen by many as an echo of the Cuban Missile Crisis of the Cold War Era, and has increased tensions between Russia and the United States. While Russia maintains that the exercises are nothing more than a method of strengthening ties with Venezuela, the United States believes that the placing of Russian war ships into the American sphere of influence is blatant provocation and a direct retaliation for both the American missile plan in Eastern Europe and interference with the Russia-Georgia situation of August 2008.

North Korean nuclear threat

On 25 May 2009, North Korea's new nuclear test shocked North Korea's bilateral relations with Russia and China. Russia responded to this new nuclear program by condemning North Korea's move[18] and that it could lead to a nuclear war. North Korea later threatened to attack its neighboring rival South Korea after it joined a U.S. led plan to check vessels suspected of carrying equipment for weapons of mass destruction. Due to this, ambassadors from five permanent veto-wielding council members (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and the United States) were ready to have a meeting to make a new resolution to this nuclear strike. On June 15, 2009, Russia and China have both supported the new UN sanctions on North Korea.

Syrian uprising

While the U.S. favored sanctions and resolutions calling Assad to quit, Russia has refused to support such moves. In March 2012, a bipartisan group of 17 U.S. senators called on the Department of Defense to stop doing business with Russian state-controlled arms exporter Rosoboroneksport over its arming of the Syrian government. The group of senators included John Cornyn, R-TX, Dick Durbin, D-IL., Kelly Ayotte, R-NH, and Kirsten Gillibrand, D-NY.[19]

"Reset" of relations under Barack Obama and Dmitry Medvedev (2009-2010)

Main article: Russian reset
U.S. President Barack Obama with Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in 2009.

Despite U.S.-Russia relations becoming strained during the Bush administration, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev and U.S. President Barack Obama struck a warm tone at the 2009 G20 summit in London and released a joint statement that promised a "fresh start" in U.S.-Russia relations. The statement also called on Iran to abandon its nuclear program and to permit foreign inspectors into the country.[20]

In March 2009, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and her Russian counterpart Sergey Lavrov symbolically pressed a "reset" button. The gag fell short as the Russian on the button was wrongly translated by the State Department as "overload" instead of "reset". After making a few jokes, they decided to press the button anyway.[21]

On March 24, 2010, the United States and Russia reached an agreement to reduce their stockpiles of nuclear weapons. The new nuclear arms reduction treaty (called New START) was signed by President Obama and President Medvedev on April 8, 2010, in Prague. The agreement cut the number of long-range nuclear weapons held by each side to about 1,500, down from the current 1,700 to 2,200 set by the Moscow Treaty of 2002. The New START replaced the 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, which expired in December 2009.[22] However, in practice, New START requires only the US, not Russia, to cut its nuclear arsenal; Moscow is not required to reduce its nuclear stockpile.

Vigilant Eagle 2010

In August 2010, the United States and Russia conducted a joint anti-hijacking exercise.[23]

It was planned to conduct joint anti terrorist exercises already in 2008 but due to the war in South Ossettia the drill was postponed. In 2010, the exercise took place over the territory of Russia's Kamchatka region and the US state of Alaska. According to Alexander Zelin it was an example of successful international cooperation on preventing a terrorist threat as Russian, Canadian and US fighter jets, along with airborne warning and control aircraft, worked together to rescue a simulated hijacked aircraft. However, the chief of the Russian Air Force confessed that the maneuvers also revealed a number of problems in the interaction between the pilots of the 3 states.

Putin's third term

In March 2012, with the election of Putin back to presidency, White House spokesman Jay Carney said U.S.-Russian cooperation is based on mutual interests. He also said it is a policy based on an approach based on U.S. national interests and the areas where the U.S can reach an agreement with Russia on things like Iran, on trade and other matters.[24]

Increased tension

In May 2012, Russian General Nikolay Yegorovich Makarov said that there is a possibility of a preemptive strike on missile defense sites in Eastern Europe, to apply pressure to the United States regarding Russia's demands.[25] In July 2012, two Tu-95 Bears were intercepted by NORAD fighters in the air defense zone off the U.S. coast of Alaska, where they may have been practicing the targeting of Fort Greely and Vandenberg Air Force Base.[26] Later in August 2012, it was revealed that an Akula-class submarine had conducted a patrol within the Gulf of Mexico without being detected, raising alarms of the U.S. Navy's anti-submarine warfare capabilities.[27][28]

On 14 December 2012, President Barack Obama signed the called the Magnitsky Act, which "[imposed] U.S. travel and financial restrictions on human rights abusers in Russia". On 28 December 2012, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a bill, widely seen as retaliatory, that banned any United States citizen from adopting children from Russia.[29]

On February 12, 2013, just hours before the 2013 State of the Union Address, two Russian Tu-95 Bear strategic bombers equipped with nuclear-tipped cruise missiles circled the United States territory of Guam.[30][31] Air Force F-15 jets based on Andersen Air Force Base were scrambled to intercept the aircraft.[30][31] The Russian aircraft reportedly "were intercepted and left the area in a northbound direction."[30][31]

There have been increasing concerns that Russia is violating the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1987. Based on a classified briefing in 2012 with John Kerry, at the time acting as the chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, these compliance concerns have already been voiced. By the end of 2013, it was clear that a rearmament of the Novosibirsk and Tagil divisions with the mobile Yars missile system by solid-propelled intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) has been taking place.[32] The silo-based RS-26 Rubezh missile system is based on upgraded RS-24 Yars rockets that can carry multiple independently targetable nuclear warheads, and most importantly, they are equipped to evade the anti-ballistic missile defense installations in Poland.[33] Rose Gottemoeller, the State Department's senior arms control official, has discussed these possible threats with Russian officials in May 2013, but the White House has not yet clarified whether the deployment of these missile systems are indeed violating the aforementioned agreement.[34]

North Korean threat 2013

Main article: 2013 Korean crisis

In April 2013, North Korean leader Kim Jong-un ordered missiles to be ready to launch at U.S. military bases in South Korea, Japan and Guam. Russia immediately supported U.N. sanctions against North Korea. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov and Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Igor Morgulo specifically told North Korea to stop causing tensions in the Korean peninsula. Both Russia and China have condemned North Korea's actions and support U.N. sanctions against North Korea.

Edward Snowden affair

Relations between the United States and Russia worsened when in late July 2013 Russia granted political asylum to the former NSA contractor Edward Snowden, who was wanted by U.S. prosecutors for theft of government property and espionage. This further aggravated relations between the two countries and led to the cancellation of a previously planned one-on-one meeting between Barack Obama and Vladimir Putin that was scheduled for early September 2013 in Moscow, Russia.[35][36][37]

Ukraine crisis: 2014-2015

Following the collapse of the government of Viktor Yanukovych in Ukraine, in February 2014 Russia invaded and occupied Crimea which it then annexed on the basis of a staged referendum. The annexation of Crimea was denounced by the international community including the US leadership, as a breach of international law, and thus Crimea's status as a part of Russia remains unrecognized.

Political cartoon by Ranan Lurie

As unrest spread into eastern Ukraine in the spring of 2014, relations between the U.S. and Russia began to sour. Russian support for separatists fighting Ukrainian forces attracted U.S. sanctions. After one bout of sanctions announced by President Obama on July 16, 2014, Russian President Vladimir Putin said sanctions were driving Russia into a corner that could bring relations between the two countries to a "dead-end."[38]

On July 17, 2014, relations between the two countries deteriorated further when Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was brought down by a suspected surface-to-air missile in eastern Ukraine, near the Russian border. Independent sources concluded that the missile had been fired from an area controlled by Russian-backed separatists, who were supplied by Russia with sophisticated weapons, training, heavy arms, and anti-aircraft equipment.[39] American military officer Martin Dempsey said that in response the United States was "looking inside our own readiness models to look at things that we haven’t had to look at for 20 years, frankly, about basing and lines of communication and sea lanes"[40] On 20 August 2014, as tensions between the two countries continued to be strained over events in Ukraine, and the resultant sanctions, the Russian government temporarily shut down four McDonald's outlets in Moscow, citing sanitary concerns. The U.S. company has operated in Russia since 1990, and at August 2014 had 438 stores across the country.[41] On 23 August 2014, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Arkady Dvorkovich ruled out any government move to ban McDonald's and said the temporary closures had nothing to do with the sanctions.[42]

The end of 2014 saw the passage by the US of the Ukraine Freedom Support Act of 2014,[43][44] aimed at depriving certain Russian state firms from Western financing and technology while also providing $350 million in arms and military equipment to Ukraine, and the imposition by the US President's executive order of yet another round of sanctions.[45]

Due to the situation concerning Ukraine, relations between the United States and Russia are at their worst since the end of the Cold war.[46] In 2015, on Defender of the Fatherland Day, a mock missile was paraded reading "to be personally delivered to Obama".[47]

Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War (from 30 September 2015)

Barack Obama meets with Vladimir Putin to discuss Syria, 29 September 2015

According to Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov′s statement made in mid-October 2015, prior to the start of its air campaign on the side of the Syrian government headed by president Bashar al-Assad of Syria on 30 September 2015, Russia had invited the U.S. to join the Baghdad-based information center set up by Iran, Iraq, Syria and Russia to coordinate their military efforts, but received what he called an "unconstructive" response; Putin′s proposal that the U.S. receive a high-level Russian delegation and that a U.S. delegation arrive in Moscow to discuss co-operation in Syria was likewise declined by the U.S.[48][49][50]

In early October 2015, U.S. president Obama called the way Russia was conducting its military campaign in Syria a "recipe for disaster";[51] top U.S. military officials ruled out military cooperation with Russia in Syria.[52][53] Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter and other senior U.S. officials said Russia's campaign was primarily aimed at propping up Assad, whom U.S. president Barack Obama had repeatedly called upon to leave power.[54]

Three weeks into the Russian campaign in Syria, on 20 October 2015, Russian president Vladimir Putin met Bashar Assad in Moscow to discuss their joint military campaign and a future political settlement in Syria, according to the Kremlin report of the event.[55][56] The meeting provoked a sharp condemnation from the White House.[57]

While one of the original aims of the Russian leadership may have been normalisation of the relationship with the U.S. and the West at large, the resultant situation in Syria was said in October 2015 to be a proxy war between Russia and the U.S.[58][59][60][61][62] The two rounds of the Syria peace talks held in Vienna in October and November 2015, with Iran participating for the first time, highlighted yet again the deep disagreement over the Syrian settlement between the U.S. and Russia, primarily on the issue of Bashar Assad′s political future.[63] The talks in Vienna were followed by a bilateral meeting of Obama and Putin on the sidelines of the G-20 Summit in Turkey, during which a certain consensus between the two leaders on Syria was reported to have been reached.[64][65]

Russian intelligence operations

According to the 2007 reports referring to American sources, Russian espionage under Vladimir Putin had reached Cold War levels.[66]

Mutual perceptions by the countries’ populations

President Obama greets attendees at the New Economic School graduation in Gostinny Dvor, Moscow, July 7, 2009

A poll by the University of Maryland, College Park, released early July 2009 found that only 2 percent of Russians had "a lot of confidence" that American President Barack Obama would do the right thing in world affairs.[67] Russian media has criticized the United States over the past years for pursuing an anti-missile system in Europe, for favoring NATO expansion and for supporting Georgia in its armed conflict with Russia in 2008.[68]

Prior to 2014, the Russian press expressed varying opinions of Russian-America relations.[69] Russian media treatment of America ranged from doctrinaire[70] and nationalistic[71] to very positive toward the United States and the West.[72][73][74][75] In 2013, 51% of Russians had a favorable view of the U.S., down from 57% in 2010.[76]

The opinion polls taken by the independent Levada Center in January 2015,[77] showed 81 percent of Russians to hold negative views of the US, a number that had nearly doubled over the previous 12 months and that was by far the highest negative rating since the center started tracking those views in 1988, as well as surpassing any time since the Stalin era, according to observers.[78] This contrasts with only 7 percent of Russians in April 1990 who said they had bad or somewhat bad attitudes towards the US.[79] Likewise, the figures published by Gallup in February 2015 showed a significant rise in anti-Russian sentiment in the US: the proportion of Americans who considered Russia as a "critical military threat" had over the 12 months increased from 32 to 49 percent, and, for the first time in many years, Russia topped the list of America’s perceived external enemies, ahead of North Korea, China and Iran, with 18 percent of U.S. residents putting Russia at the top of the list of the "United States’ greatest enemy today".[80] Public opinion polls taken by the Pew Research Center showed that the U.S.'s opinion of Russia is as of 2015, at 22%. While the public opinion of the United States is as of 2015, lower at 15%. The most negative views of Russia was at 19% (2014) and the most positive views at 49% (2010 and 2011).[81] And the most negative views of the United States was at 15% (2015) while the most positive views was at 61% (2002).[82]

Timeline of peace and friendship between the United States and Russia

This timeline of peace shows the growing relations between the United States and Russia following the end of the Cold War.

Boris Yeltsin and Bill Clinton share a laugh in October 1995.
Vladimir Putin and wife Lyudmila at service for victims of the September 11 attacks, November 16, 2001.
Donald Rumsfeld with Russian Minister of Defense Sergei Ivanov on March 13, 2002
Barack Obama meets with Prime Minister Putin at his dacha outside Moscow, July 7, 2009
U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov shake hands after signing the New START Treaty, Munich, Germany, on February 5, 2011
Barack Obama at a bilateral meeting with Vladimir Putin during the G8 summit in Ireland, June 17, 2013.
Putin and Obama shake hands at G8 summit, June 17, 2013

Space exploration

The Planetary Society is known to have collaborated with Russia, especially Cosmos 1 and LIFE.

According to the Washington Post NASA recently renewed a contract that requires Russia to aid in transporting U.S. astronauts to the International Space Station. While adding additional support at the Russian launch site, this contract is costing the United States $457.9 million. Along with the renewal NASA has also announced that they will be cutting some contacts with Russia after the country annexed Crimea which includes meetings, and teleconferences. The funding the United States continues to borrow from Russia is due to the lack of funding NASA is receiving from congress.[87]

Economic ties

The U.S. Congress voted to repeal the Jackson–Vanik amendment on November 16, 2012.[88]

The economic relationship between Russia and the U.S. is unbalanced. Russia is the 20th largest trading partner for the U.S., with $27 billion worth of trade exported across the Atlantic. On the flip-side, the U.S. is Russia's fifth largest partner, with just $11 billion worth of trade.

Military ties

Following the demise of the Soviet Union, the United States and Russia signed a bilateral treaty called the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II). Signed by George H. W. Bush and Boris Yeltsin on January 3, 1993, it banned the use of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles on intercontinental ballistic missiles.

The United States and Russia have conducted joint military maneuvers, training and counter-terrorist exercises in Germany. This was done in hopes to strengthen relations with the United States and Russia.[89] The Russian president has also proposed that the United States and Russia put a joint missile defense system in Azerbaijan, a proposal being considered by the United States.[90] In 2008, in response to tensions over Georgia, the United States had cancelled its most recent joint NATO-Russia military exercises.

As of August 2012, the U.S. and Russia continue to hold joint military exercises like Northern Eagle (held since 2004, together with Norway)[91][92][93] and Vigilant/Watchful Eagle (with Canada)[94] among others, with the aim of improving joint cooperation against terrorism and piracy.

NATO–Russia relations

Russian-American relations are heavily influenced by the United States' deep involvement with NATO and its policies. NATO and Russia agreed to cooperate on security issues at the 2002 Rome summit and have been gradually improving relations ever since. However, due to the expansion of the alliance, the Russian intervention in Georgia, Russias war campaign against Ukraine and other controversies, relations deteriorated significantly.

As part of the NATO-Russia cooperation the Russian government offered and recently agreed to host a NATO transit hub at Ulyanovsk airport to facilitate the NATO withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2014,[95][96] which drew criticism from the Communist Party.[96]

Joint operations and mutual support

Presidents Bush and Putin, November 16, 2001.

Russia has expressed support for the United States' War on Terror by deploying a military hospital and a small number of military personnel (for the military hospital) to Afghanistan in order to aid the U.S. Military, NATO military forces and Afghan civilians. Russia has also agreed to provide logistic support for the United States forces in Afghanistan to aid in anti-terrorist operations. Russia has also allowed U.S. and NATO forces to pass through its territory to go to Afghanistan. Russian Spetsnaz have also assisted U.S., NATO and Afghan forces in operations in Afghanistan, by helping with intel and studying the lay of the land. The two nations support each other in combating piracy in the waters of Somalia.

Victory Day celebrations

On May 9, 2010, the 2nd Battalion of the 18th Infantry Regiment of the U.S. Army marched across Red Square in Russia's Victory Day Parade.[97] They were also joined by British, French and Polish troops as well as detachments from the CIS member states.[97][98] Labeled by Russian president Dmitry Medvedev as the "Anti-Hitler Coalition," it marked the first time in history that NATO troops joined the Russian military in the Victory Parade.[98]

Bering Strait crossing

The Bering Strait crossing was authorized by Tsar Nicholas II as early as 1906.[99] The Bering Strait is 37 km wide; 3 km wider than the English Channel.[100]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Dmitri Trenin (March 4, 2014). "Welcome to Cold War II". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
  2. ↑ Mauldin, John (29 October 2014). "The Colder War Has Begun". Forbes. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
  3. ↑ Kendall, Bridget (12 November 2014). "Rhetoric hardens as fears mount of new Cold War". BBC News. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
  4. ↑ "United States". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved January 31, 2010.
  5. ↑ Malta summit ends Cold War, BBC News, 3 December 1989. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
  6. ↑ "Bush and Putin: Best of friends". BBC. 2001-06-16. Retrieved 2015-10-23.
  7. ↑ In wishishing Bush well, Putin has message for Obama
  8. ↑ Gottemoeller, Rose (June 5, 2007). Talk of the Nation Strained Russian Relations Greet Bush in Europe Check |url= value (help). Interview with Robert Siegel. NPR.
  9. ↑ Halpin, Tony (2007-10-17). "Vladimir Putin pledges to complete Iranian nuclear reactor". The Times. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  10. ↑ "White House Transcript of 17 October 2007 Press Conference". 2007-10-17.
  11. ↑ "Putin compares US shield to Cuba". BBC News. 2007-10-26. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  12. ↑ "Russia could aim rockets at European missile shield – Putin". RIA Novosti. 2008-02-14. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  13. ↑ "Russia warns over US-Czech shield". BBC News. 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  14. ↑ "No permanent foreign inspectors in US-Czech radar talks: minister". spacedaily.com. 2008-05-11. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
  15. ↑ Andrusz, Katya (2008-08-15). "Poland Gets U.S. Military Aid in Missile-Shield Deal". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2010-04-03.
  16. ↑ "Russia to deploy missiles in Kaliningrad to counter US threat". Xinhua News Agency. 2008-11-06. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  17. ↑ de Nesnera, Andrea (2009-08-13). "Biden Remarks Anger Russian Officials". Voice of America. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  18. ↑ Hurst, Steven R. (2009-05-27). "Obama looks to China and Russia to punish North Korea". Japan Today. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  19. ↑ "US lawmakers call on Pentagon to stop business with Russian arms exporter working with Syria", Washington Post
  20. ↑ Cooper, Helene (2009-04-01). "Promises of ‘Fresh Start’ for U.S.-Russia Relations". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-03-29.
  21. ↑ "U.S.-Russia Relations: In Need of a New Reset". Time. 2010-03-16. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
  22. ↑ Baker, Peter; Ellen Barry (2010-03-24). "Russia and U.S. Report Breakthrough on Arms". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-03-29.
  23. ↑ Vigilant Eagle-2010 – protection against aircraft terrorism
  24. ↑ U.S.-Russia Cooperation Based on Interests - White House, March 9, 2012
  25. ↑ Mansur Mirovalev (May 3, 2012). "Russia's military threatens pre-emptive strike if NATO goes ahead with missile plan". Fox News. Associated Press. Retrieved August 27, 2012.
  26. ↑ Bill Gertz (August 6, 2012). "http://freebeacon.com/putins-july-4th-message/". Free Beacon. Retrieved August 27, 2012. External link in |title= (help)
  27. ↑ Bill Gertz (August 14, 2012). "Silent Running". Free Beacon. Retrieved August 27, 2012.
  28. ↑ Richard Dunham (August 16, 2012). "Red October redux? John Cornyn demands answers from Pentagon on Russian sub in Gulf of Mexico (UPDATED)". Houston Chronicle (Hearst Communications Inc.). Retrieved August 27, 2012.
  29. ↑ "Russia's Putin signs anti-U.S. adoption bill". CNN News Network.
  30. 1 2 3 Gertz, Bill (February 15, 2013). "Bear Bombers Over Guam". Washington Free Beacon. Retrieved February 20, 2013.
  31. 1 2 3 "Air Force confirms Russian jets circled US territory of Guam". Fox News. February 16, 2013. Retrieved February 20, 2013.
  32. ↑ Bayanihan. Science and Technology. December 27, 2013. Putin: Russia begins deployment of new silo-based missile system Retrieved January 31, 2014.
  33. ↑ RIANOVOSTI. Defense.24/12/2013. Russia Test Fires New Yars Ballistic Missile. Retrieved January 31, 2014.
  34. ↑ M. R. Gordon (January 2014). U.S. Says Russia Tested Missile, Despite Treaty The New York Times. Europe. Retrieved January 31, 2014.
  35. ↑ "Statement by the Press Secretary on the President's Travel to Russia". The White House (USA). August 7, 2013.
  36. ↑ "Obama cancels Putin meeting over Snowden asylum". USA: BBC. August 7, 2013.
  37. ↑ Sanchez, Raf (August 7, 2013). "Barack Obama cancels meeting with Vladimir Putin over Edward Snowden". The Daily Telegraph (London).
  38. ↑ "Russia warns new US sanctions will return ties to Cold War era". Russia News.Net. Retrieved July 18, 2014.
  39. ↑ "US president blames Russian backed separatists for Malaysian jet crash". Herald Globe. Retrieved July 18, 2014.
  40. ↑ Ferran, Lee (July 25, 2014). "Dempsey: US Military Dusting Off Decades-Old ‘Readiness’ Plans for Russia". abcnews.go.com (Yahoo!-ABC News Network). Retrieved July 25, 2014.
  41. ↑ "Russia Shuts 4 McDonald's Restaurants Amid Ukraine Tensions". Moscow News.Net. 20 August 2014. Retrieved 21 August 2014.
  42. ↑ "Russian Deputy PM says McDonalds is not being targeted in response to sanctions". Russia Herald. 23 August 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
  43. ↑ Statement by the President on the Ukraine Freedom Support Act, December 18, 2014.
  44. ↑ Baker, Peter (16 December 2014). "Obama Signals Support for New U.S. Sanctions to Pressure Russian Economy". New York Times. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
  45. ↑ "Ukraine crisis: Russia defies fresh Western sanctions". BBC. 20 December 2014. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
  46. ↑ Koren, Marina (31 December 2014). "How 2014 Became the Worst Year in U.S.-Russia Relations Since the Cold War". National Journal. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
  47. ↑ Hoft, Jim (24 February 2015). "Russia Pushes Reset Button: Parades Missile Threatening to BLOW UP Obama". Gateway Pundit. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
  48. ↑ "Russia's Lavrov says Washington declines deeper military talks on Syria". NEWSru. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
  49. ↑ "US refuses to receive PM Medvedev's delegation to coordinate anti-terrorist actions in Syria". RT English. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
  50. ↑ ""Это обидно": Лавров сообщил, что США отказались принять делегацию РФ для обсуждения сирийского кризиса". NEWSru. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
  51. ↑ "US president’s comments follow coalition’s expression of deep concerns over targeting in Russian bombing campaign". The Guardian. 2 October 2015. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
  52. ↑ "As Russia escalates, U.S. rules out military cooperation in Syria". Reuters. 7 October 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
  53. ↑ "Russia will pay price for Syrian airstrikes, says US defence secretary". The Guardian. 8 October 2015.
  54. ↑ "Russians Strike Targets in Syria, but Not ISIS Areas". The New York Times. 30 September 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
  55. ↑ Meeting with President of Syria Bashar Assad
  56. ↑ "Assad Makes Unannounced Trip to Moscow to Discuss Syria With Putin". The New York Times. 21 October 2015.
  57. ↑ "Syria crisis: US attacks Moscow welcome for Assad". BBC. 22 October 2015. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
  58. ↑ "U.S. Weaponry Is Turning Syria Into Proxy War With Russia". The New York Times. 12 October 2015. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  59. ↑ "John McCain says US is engaged in proxy war with Russia in Syria". The Guardian. 4 October 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
  60. ↑ "U.S., Russia escalate involvement in Syria". CNN. 13 October 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
  61. ↑ ""The Russians have made a serious mistake": how Putin's Syria gambit will backfire". The VOA. 1 October 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
  62. ↑ Simon Shuster (12 October 2015). "Putin’s Syria Gamble". Time. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
  63. ↑ "Сирийское урегулирование продвинулось не дальше Башара Асада". Kommersant. 16 November 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  64. ↑ "G20: Barack Obama and Vladimir Putin agree to Syrian-led transition", The Guardian, 16 November 2015.
  65. ↑ Putin comes in from the cold: Desperate world leaders cosy up to Russian President to get him to join the fight against ISIS
  66. ↑ Putin spy war on the West. The Sunday Times. May 20, 2007.
  67. ↑ "Obama agrees arms cuts, Afghan transit with Russia". Reuters. 2009-07-06. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  68. ↑ "Chilly welcome awaits Obama in Russia". Reuters. 2009-07-06. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  69. ↑ Gavrov, Sergei (2013-04-30). "US Still Has a Chance". Vzglyad, Russia. Retrieved 2013-04-30.
  70. ↑ Orlov, Dmitriy (2009-07-31). "Truman and Churchill No Better Than Stalin". Izvestia. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  71. ↑ Trostnikov, Victor (2009-01-21). "Obama Presidency Marks End of Western Civilization". Argumenty i Fakty. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  72. ↑ Novoprudski, Semen (2009-10-17). "Russia's Elite Must Embrace New Era with U.S.". Gazeta.ru. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  73. ↑ Golz, Alexander (2009-09-18). "Shall Russians Praise or Curse 'Those Treacherous Yankees'?". Yezhednevniy Zhurnal, Russia. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  74. ↑ Markedonov, Sergey (2009-10-19). "Russians Shouldn't Be Happy About America's Afghan Misfortune". Kommersant. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  75. ↑ "Obama: The Color of Change for Both Russia and Europe". Vedomosti. 2008-11-06. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  76. ↑ "Opinion of the United States". Pew Research Center.
  77. ↑ Opinions in Russia
  78. ↑ Birnbaum, Michael (March 8, 2015). "Russia’s anti-American fever goes beyond the Soviet era’s". The Washington Post.
  79. ↑ "Anti-American Sentiment on the Rise in Russia". The Wall Street Journal. June 5, 2014.
  80. ↑ "Americans Increasingly See Russia as Threat, Top U.S. Enemy". Gallup. February 16, 2015.
  81. ↑ "http://www.pewglobal.org/database/indicator/27/country/233/". Pew Research Center. External link in |title= (help);
  82. ↑ "http://www.pewglobal.org/database/indicator/1/country/181/". Pew Research Center. External link in |title= (help);
  83. ↑ American President: A Reference Resource. Foreign Affairs. George H.W.Bush Front Page. Miller Center. University of Virginia. History. Policy. Impact. Retrieved February 6, 2014.
  84. ↑ T. L. Friedman (April 1993) SUMMIT IN VANCOUVER; CLINTON PRESENTS BILLION TO YELTSIN IN U.S. AID PACKAGE The New York Times Archives. Retrieved February 6, 2014.
  85. ↑ Bill Clinton, Boris Yeltsin, and U.S.-Russian Relations Milestones: 1993-2000. U.S. Department of State. Office of the Historian. Retrieved February 6, 2014.
  86. ↑ S. Shuster (October 2010). Russia returns to Afghanistan for drug raid. TIME World. Retrieved February 6, 2014.
  87. ↑ Zezima, Katie (April 18, 2014). "Despite sanctions, Russia is getting a $457.9M check from NASA". The Washington Post.
  88. ↑ Englund, Will (November 17, 2012). "Europe". The Washington Post.
  89. ↑ "Russia, US to Hold Joint Military Exercises in Germany". Moscow News. 2007-07-20. Retrieved 2010-04-02. Archived November 23, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
  90. ↑ "U.S./Russia: Missile Expert Assesses Azerbaijan Radar Proposal". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 2007-06-08. Retrieved 2010-04-02.
  91. ↑ "Eagles get ready to attack". Radio The Voice of Russia. 2012-08-23. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
  92. ↑ "U.S. participates in joint naval drills". United Press International. 2012-08-22. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
  93. ↑ "Russia, U.S., Norway to Hold Joint Naval Drills in August". Ria Novosti. 2012-08-24. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
  94. ↑ "Russian military to take part in anti-terror exercise in N. America". Radio The Voice of Russia. 2012-08-24. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
  95. ↑ "Putin Reiterates Support for NATO Afghan Operation". Ria Novosti. 2012-08-01. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
  96. 1 2 "Russia to let NATO use airport as hub". United Press International. 2012-03-21. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
  97. 1 2 "Foreign troops join Russia parade". BBC News. 2010-05-09. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
  98. 1 2 "Marching in memory of common victory — RT". Rt.com. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
  99. ↑ "Czar Authorizes American Syndicate to Begin Work.". New York Times. August 2, 1906. Retrieved 2009-07-07. The Czar of Russia has issued an order authorizing the American syndicate, represented by Baron Loicq de Lobel, to begin work on the TransSiberian-Alaska ...
  100. ↑ "Russians dream of tunnel to Alaska". BBC. January 3, 2001. Retrieved 2009-07-07.

Further reading

To 1945

Cold War

Since 1991

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Russia–United States relations.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Tuesday, May 03, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.