Sardinian people

Sardinians
Sardi  (Italian)
Sardos/Sardus  (Sardinian)
Regions with significant populations
Italy:
Sardinia
(inhabitants of Sardinia)		 1,661,521(ISTAT)[1]
Languages
Italian and Sardinian
Other languages
Religion
Mostly Christian (Roman Catholicism[2])
Related ethnic groups
Neolithic European farmers,
[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] Corsicans,[11] Italians, Spaniards and Catalans

The Sardinians,[12] or also the Sards,[13] (Italian and Sassarese: Sardi; Sardinian: Sardos or Sardus; Gallurese: Saldi; Algherese: Saldus; Tabarchino: Sordi) are the people from whom Sardinia, a western Mediterranean island and autonomous region of Italy, derives its name.[14][15]

Origin and influences

Prehistory

Fragment of pottery with human figures, Ozieri culture

Sardinia was first colonized in a stable manner during the Upper Paleolithic and the Mesolithic by people from the Iberian and/or the Italian peninsula. During the Neolithic period and the Early Eneolithic, people from Italy, Spain and the Aegean area settled in Sardinia. In the Late Eneolithic-Early Bronze age the "Beaker folk" from Southern France, Northeastern Spain and then from Central Europe[16] settled on the island, bringing new metallurgical techniques and ceramic styles and probably some kind of Indo-European speech.[17]

Composition of Nuragic tribes according to the Greek geographer Ptolemy

Nuragic civilization

The Nuragic civilization arose in the Middle Bronze Age, during the Late Bonnanaro culture, which shown connections with the previous Beaker culture and the Polada culture of northern Italy. At that time the island was divided into three or more major ethnic groups, the most important being the Iolei/Ilienses of the south-central plains and Barbagia, the Balares in the north-west and the Corsi in Gallura (and Corsica).[18] Nuragic Sardinians have been connected by some scholars to the Sherden, a tribe of the so-called Sea Peoples, whose presence is registered several times in ancient Egyptian records.[19]

The language (or the languages) spoken in Sardinia during the Bronze Age is unknown since there are no written records of that period. According to Eduardo Blasco Ferrer the Proto-Sardinian language was akin to Proto-Basque and the ancient Iberian, while others believe it was akin with Etruscan. Other scholars theorize that there were actually various linguistic areas (two or more) in Nuragic Sardinia, possibly Pre-Indoeuropeans and Indoeuropeans.[20]

Ancient history

In yellow the territories occupied by Carthage with the most important cities

In the 9th century BC, the Phoenicians founded cities and ports along the south-west coast, such as Karalis, Bithia, Sulki and Tharros.

The south and west part of Sardinia was conquered by the Carthaginians in the late 6th century BC and later the whole island by the Romans in the 3rd century BC, after the First Punic War.

The Barbaria (in blue) and the roman controlled regions of Sardinia (in yellow)

Sardinia, with the exception of the central mountainous area called Barbagia, was heavily "latinized" during the Roman period, and the modern Sardinian language is considered one of the most conservative Romance languages.[21][22][23] Besides, during the Roman rule there was a considerable immigration into the island from the Italian peninsula; ancient sources mention several peoples of likely Italic origin living in Sardinia, like the Patulcenses Campani (from Campania), the Falisci (from southern Etruria), the Buduntini (from Apulia) and the Siculenses (from Sicily). Roman colonies were also established in Porto Torres (Turris Libisonis) and Usellus.[24] Strabo gave a brief summary about the Mountaineer tribes of Barbagia who refused assimilation during Roman rule, Geographica V ch.2:

There are four nations of mountaineers, the Parati, Sossinati, Balari, and the Aconites. These people dwell in caverns. Although they have some arable land, they neglect its cultivation, preferring rather to plunder what they find cultivated by others, whether on the island or on the continent, where they make descents, especially upon the Pisatæ. The prefects sent [into Sardinia] sometimes resist them, but at other times leave them alone, since it would cost too dear to maintain an army always on foot in an unhealthy place

Middle Ages

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Sardinia was ruled in rapid succession by the Vandals, the Byzantines, the Ostrogoths[25] and again by the Byzantines.

During the Middle Ages , the island was divided into four independent Kingdoms (Sardinian: Judicados; Italian: Giudicati); all of them, with the exception of that of Arborea, fell under the influence of the Genoese and Pisan maritime republics, as well as some noble families of the two cities, like the Doria and the Della Gherardesca. The Doria founded the cities of Alghero and Castelgenovese (today Castelsardo), while the Pisans founded Castel di Castro (today Cagliari); the famous count Ugolino della Gherardesca, quoted by Dante Alighieri in his Divine Comedy, favored the birth of the mining town of Villa di Chiesa (today Iglesias), which became an Italian medieval commune along with Sassari and Castel di Castro.

Following the Aragonese conquest of the Sardinian territories belonging to Pisa, which took place between 1323 and 1326, and then the long conflict between the Aragonese Kingdom and the Giudicato of Arborea (1353–1420), the newborn Kingdom of Sardinia became one of the states of the Crown of Aragon. The Aragonese repopulated the cities of Castel di Castro and Alghero with Iberian colonists, mainly Catalans.[26][27] A local dialect of Catalan is still spoken by a minority of people in the city of Alghero.

Modern and contemporary history

View of Cagliari from " Civitates orbis terrarum" (1572)

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the main Sardinian cities of Cagliari (the capital of the Kingdom), Alghero and Sassari appear well placed in the trades of the time. The cosmopolitan composition of its people provides evidence of it: the population was not only indigenous, but also hailing from Spain, Liguria, France and Corsica in particular.[28][29][30] Especially in Sassari and across the strip of territory that goes from Anglona to Gallura, the Corsicans became the majority of the population at least since the 15th century.[30] This migration from the neighboring island, which is likely to have led to the birth of the Tuscan-sounding Sassarese and Gallurese dialects,[30] went on continuously until the 19th century.

The Spanish era ended in 1713, when the whole island was ceded to the Austrian House of Habsburg, followed with another cession in 1718 to the Dukes of Savoy, who assumed the title of "Kings of Sardinia". During this period, Ligurian colonists, escaped from Tabarka, settled on the little islands of San Pietro and Sant'Antioco (at Carloforte and Calasetta), in the south-west area of Sardinia, bringing with them a Gallo-Italic dialect called "Tabarchino", still widely spoken there. Then, the Piedmontese Kingdom of Sardinia annexed the whole Italian peninsula and Sicily in 1861 after the Risorgimento, becoming the Kingdom of Italy.

Montevecchio mine

Since 1850, with the reorganization of the Sardinian mines, limited groups of specialised workers from Styria, Austria, followed by German miners from Freiburg began to settle temporarily in the Iglesiente, especially in the mining areas of Montevecchio, Guspini and Ingurtosu. Some Germans influenced building and toponym is still visible in this area.[31] However, the contemporaneous migration flow from the Italian peninsula towards the Sardinian mining areas was far more considerable and stable; these mainland miners came mostly from Lombardy, Piedmont, Tuscany and Romagna[32][33] According to an 1882 census realised by the French engineer Leon Goüine, in the south-western Sardinian mines worked 10.000 miners, one third of which coming from the Italian mainland;[34] most of them settled in Iglesias and frazioni .

At the end of the 19th century, communities of fishermen from Sicily, Torre del Greco (Campania) and Ponza (Lazio) migrated on the east coasts of the island, in the towns of Arbatax/Tortolì, Siniscola and La Maddalena.

In the 20th century, a large immigration flow from the Italian peninsula during the Fascist period occurred, as a result of a government policy: a number of people hailing from Veneto but also from Marche, Abruzzo and Sicily came to Sardinia to populate the island, especially the new mining town of Carbonia and the villages of Mussolinia di Sardegna (now Arborea) and Fertilia; besides, after World War II, Istrian Italian refugees were relocated in the Nurra region, along the north-west coastline. Today Istriot, Venetian and Friulan are spoken by the elderly in Fertilia, Tanca Marchese and Arborea.[35] In the same period, few Italian Tunisian families settled in the sparsely populated area of Castiadas, east of Cagliari.[36]

Following the Italian economic miracle, a historic migratory movement from the inland to the coastal and urban areas of Cagliari, Sassari-Alghero-Porto Torres and Olbia, which today collect most of the people, took place.

Demographics

With a population density of 69/km2, slightly more than a third of the national average, Sardinia is the fourth least populated region in Italy. The population distribution is anomalous compared to that of other Italian regions lying on the sea. In fact, contrary to the general trend, urban settlement has not taken place primarily along the coast but towards the centre of the island. Historical reasons for this include repeated Saracen raids during the Middle Ages (making the coast unsafe), widespread pastoral activities inland, and the swampy nature of the coastal plains (reclaimed only in the 20th century). The situation has been reversed with the expansion of seaside tourism; today all Sardinia's major urban centres are located near the coasts, while the island's interior is very sparsely populated.

It is the Italian region with the lowest total fertility rate[37] (1.087 births per woman), and the region with the second-lowest birth rate;[38] However, the population has increased in recent years because of massive immigration, mainly from the Italian mainland, but also from Eastern Europe (esp. Romania), Africa and China.

As of 2013, there were 42.159 foreign[39] national residents, forming 2.5% of the total population.[40]

Age expectancy and Longevity

Diagram of longevity clues in the main Blue Zones

Average life expectancy is 81.9 years (84.9 for women[41] and 78.9 for men[41]).

Sardinia is the first discovered Blue Zone, a demographic and/or geographic area of the world where people live measurably longer lives.[42] Sardinians share with the Ryukyuans from Okinawa[43][44] (Japan) the highest rate of centenarians in the world (22 centenarians/100,000 inhabitants). The key factors of such a high contentration of centenarians are identified in the genetic of Sardinian population,[45][46] lifestyle such as diet and nutrition, and the social structure.[47]

Demographic indicators

Historical population

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1485 157,578—    
1603 266,676+69.2%
1678 299,356+12.3%
1688 229,532−23.3%
1698 259,157+12.9%
1728 311,902+20.4%
1751 360,805+15.7%
1771 360,785−0.0%
1776 422,647+17.1%
1781 431,897+2.2%
1821 461,931+7.0%
1824 469,831+1.7%
1838 525,485+11.8%
1844 544,253+3.6%
1848 554,717+1.9%
1857 573,243+3.3%
1861 609,000+6.2%
1871 636,000+4.4%
1881 680,000+6.9%
1901 796,000+17.1%
1911 868,000+9.0%
1921 885,000+2.0%
1931 984,000+11.2%
1936 1,034,000+5.1%
1951 1,276,000+23.4%
1961 1,419,000+11.2%
1971 1,474,000+3.9%
1981 1,594,000+8.1%
1991 1,648,000+3.4%
2001 1,632,000−1.0%
2011 1,639,362+0.5%
Source: ISTAT 2011, – D.Angioni-S.Loi-G.Puggioni, La popolazione dei comuni sardi dal 1688 al 1991, CUEC, Cagliari, 1997 – F. Corridore, Storia documentata della popolazione di Sardegna, Carlo Clausen, Torino, 1902

Division by gender and age

|

Total population by age

Geographical distribution

Most Sardinians are native to the island but a sizable number of people have settled outside Sardinia: it had been estimated that, between 1955 and 1971, 308.000 Sardinians have emigrated to the Italian mainland.[54] Sizable Sardinian communities are located in Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy, Tuscany and Latium.
Sardinians and their descendants are also numerous in Germany, France, Belgium, Switzerland. In the Americas Sardinians migrated almost all in Southern part of the continent, especially in Argentina (between 1900 and 1913 about 12,000 Sardinians lived in Buenos Aires and neighbourhoods)[55] and Uruguay (in Montevideo in the 1870s lived 12,500 Sardinians). Between 1876 and 1903 the 92% of Sardinians that moved towards the Americas settled in Brazil.[56] Between 1876 and 1925 34,190 Sardinians migrated to Africa, in particular towards the French colonies of Algeria and Tunisia.[57] Small communities with Sardinians ancestors, about 5000 people, are also found in Brazil (mostly in the cities of Belo Horizonte, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo),[58] the UK and Australia.

The Region of Sardinia keeps a register of overseas Sardinians that managed to set up, in the Italian mainland and across the rest of the world, a number of cultural associations: these are meant to provide the people of Sardinian descent, or those with an interest on Sardinian culture, an opportunity to enjoy a wide range of activities. As of 2012, there are 145 clubs registered on it.[59]

Sardinians residing in European countries 2008[60]
Germany 27,184
France 23,110
Belgium 12,126
Switzerland 7,274
Netherlands 6,040
Others 17,763
Total 93,497

Unlike the rest of Italian emigration, where migrants were mainly males, between 1953–1974 an equal number of females and males emigrated from Sardinia to the Italian mainland.

Culture

Languages

Main articles: Italian language, Sardinian language, Sassarese language and Gallurese language
Geographic distribution of traditional languages and dialects spoken in Sardinia

Alongside Italian (Italiano) that, once first introduced in the island by law in July 1760,[61][62] became the official language of the Piedmontese Kingdom at the expense of Spanish (Español), Sardinian (Sardu)[12][63] is the other most widely spoken language of the island;[64] however, because of a rather rigid model of standardized education system that strongly discouraged the Sardinian youth from learning and speaking the language,[65] the people retaining Sardinian as their first language have gradually become a minority in their own region. As a result of that, Sardinian is currently facing the same struggle for survival other minority languages across Europe are,[66] and both the Logudorese and Campidanese dialects (the main varieties of Sardinian) have been designated as definitely endangered by UNESCO.[67] The other languages spoken on Sardinia, all also endangered but with much fewer speakers than Sardinian, developed after the settlement of certain communities in different regions of the island over recent centuries; these include Sassarese (Sassaresu),[68] Gallurese (Gadduresu),[69] Algherese Catalan (Alguerés),[70] and Ligurian Tabarchino (Tabarchin).[71]

Religion

The vast majority of the Sardinians is baptized as Roman Catholic. Our Lady of Bonaria is the Patroness Saint of Sardinia.

Traditional dress of Desulo

Traditional clothes

Colourful and of various and original forms, the Sardinian traditional clothes are a clear symbol of belonging to specific collective identities. Although the basic model is homogeneous and common throughout the island, each town or village has its own traditional clothing which differentiates it from the others.

In the past, the clothes diversified themselves even within the communities, performing a specific function of communication as it made it immediately clear the marital status and the role of each member in the social area. Until the mid-20th century the traditional costume represented the everyday clothing in most of Sardinia, but even today in various parts of the island it is possible to meet elderly people dressed in costume.

The materials used for their packaging are among the most varied, ranging from the typical Sardinian woollen fabric (orbace) to silk and from linen to leather. The various components of the feminine apparel are: the headgear (mucadore), the shirt (camisa), the bodice (palas, cossu), the jacket (coritu, gipone), the skirt (unnedda, sauciu), the apron (farda, antalena, defentale). Those of the male are: the headdress (berritta), the shirt (bentone or camisa), the jacket (gipone), the trousers (cartzones or bragas), the skirt (ragas or bragotis), the overcoat (gabbanu, colletu) and the mastruca, a sort of sheep or lamb leather jacket without sleeves ("mastrucati latrones" or "thieves with rough wool cloaks" was the name by which Cicero denigrated the Sardinians who rebelled against the Roman power).

Notable Sardinians

Main article: List of Sardinians

Genetics

Sardinians, although part of the European gene pool, differ from other Europeans because of particular phenomena that are often found in isolated populations, such as the founder effect and the genetic drift. The data seem to suggest that the current population is derived in large part from the Stone age settlers,[45] with some other minor contributions in the Chalcolithic and the early Bronze age; very scarce, in terms of gene flow, appears instead the contribution of the historical colonizers.[72]

Recent comparisons between the Sardinians' genome and that of some individuals from the Neolithic and the early Chalcolithic, who lived in the Alpine (Oetzi), German, and Hungarian regions, showed considerable similarities between the two populations, while at the same time consistent differences between the prehistoric samples and the present inhabitants of the same geographical areas were noted.[73] From this it can be deduced that, while central and northern Europe have undergone significant demographic changes due to post-Neolithic migrations, presumably from the eastern periphery of Europe (Pontic-Caspian steppe) and possibly from Scandinavia,[74] Southern Europe and Sardinia in particular were affected less; Sardinians and Basques appear to be the populations that have best preserved the Neolithic legacy of Western Europe.[3][4][5][6][7][8][10][73][75] A 2015 study estimated that roughly 84% of the Sardinian ancestry derive from the Neolithic Europeans (an hybrid population of Mesolithic Europeans and Southwestern Asian farmers) while the remaining 16% derive from Late Neolithic/Bronze age Central Europeans (Neolithic Europeans mixed with steppe pastoralist).[75]

However, Sardinians as a whole are not a homogeneous population genetically: some studies have found micro-differences between the various regions of the island;[76] in this regard, the mountainous region of Ogliastra is more distant from the rest of Europe and Mediterranean than other Sardinian subregions located in the plains and in the coastal areas.[77] According to a study released in 2014, the genetic diversity among some Sardinian populations from different regions of the island is between 7 and 30 times higher than that found among other European ethnicities living thousands kilometers away from each other, like Spaniards and Romanians.[78] A similar phenomenon occurs even among some isolated populations of Veneto and the alpine area, such as the Ladins,[79][80] where, like in Sardinia, the complex orography of the territory has made difficult relationships and communications with neighboring peoples for millennia.

SardiNIA study in 2015 showed, by using the FST differentiation statistic, a clear genetic differentiation between Sardinians (whole genome sequence of 2120 individuals from across the island and especially the Lanusei valley) and mainland Italian populations (1000 genomes), and reported a difference being even greater between Sardinians from the Lanusei valley and the other European populations. Also this pattern of differentiation is evident in the lengths for haplotypes surrounding rare variants loci, with a similar haplotype length for Sardinian populations and shorter length for populations with low grade of common ancestry.[81]

Gallery

Sardinian folk costumes and traditional masks:

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to People of Sardinia.

References

  • Historia de la isla de Cerdeña, por el caballero G. de Gregory, traducida al castellano por una sociedad literaria (1840). Barcelona: Imprenta de Guardia Nacional.
  • Gonen, Amiram (1996). Diccionario de los pueblos del mundo. Anaya&Mario Muchnik. 
  • Casula, Francesco Cesare (1994). La Storia di Sardegna. Sassari: Carlo Delfino Editore. 
  • Brigaglia, Manlio; Giuseppina Fois; Laura Galoppini; Attilio Mastino; Antonello Mattone; Guido Melis; Piero Sanna; Giuseppe Tanda (1995). Storia della Sardegna. Sassari: Soter Editore. 
  • Ugas, Giovanni (2006). L'Alba dei Nuraghi. Cagliari: Fabula Editore. ISBN 978-88-89661-00-0. 
  • Cole, Jeffrey (2011). Ethnic Groups of Europe: an Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-302-6. 
  • Contu, Ercole (2014). I sardi sono diversi. Carlo Delfino Editore. 
  • Onnis, Omar (2015). La Sardegna e i sardi nel tempo. Arkadia Editore. 
  • Danver, Steven. Native peoples of the world - An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures, and Contemporary Issues.

Notes

  1. ↑ Statistiche demografiche ISTAT
  2. ↑ Sardinia, Lonely Planet, Damien Simonis
  3. 1 2 Keller at al 2011, Nature
  4. 1 2 Mathieson et al 2015, Nature
  5. 1 2 supp. info (p.16)
  6. 1 2 A Common Genetic Origin for Early Farmers from Mediterranean Cardial and Central European LBK Cultures, Olalde et al 2015, Molecular Biology and Evolution
  7. 1 2 Gamba et al 2014, Genome flux and stasis in a five millennium transect of European prehistory, Nature
  8. 1 2 Omrak et al 2016, Genomic Evidence Establishes Anatolia as the Source of the European Neolithic Gene Pool, Current Biology, Volume 26, Issue 2, p270–275, 25 January 2016
  9. ↑ Haak et al 2015, Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe
  10. 1 2 supp. info (p.120)
  11. ↑ G. Vona, P. Moral, M. Memmì, M.E. Ghiani and L. Varesi, Genetic structure and affinities of the Corsican population (France): Classical genetic markers analysis, American Journal of Human Biology; Volume 15, Issue 2, pages 151–163, March/April 2003
  12. 1 2 Sardinians – World Directory of Minorities
  13. ↑ Sard. Oxford Dictionary.
  14. ↑ Edelsward, Lisa-Marlene; Salzman, Philip (1996). Sardinians - Encyclopedia of World Cultures
  15. ↑ Cole, Jeffrey. Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia, pp.321-325
  16. ↑ Manlio Brigaglia – Storia della Sardegna, pg. 48-49-50
  17. ↑ Giovanni Ugas – L'alba dei Nuraghi , pg.22-23-24
  18. ↑ Giovanni Ugas – L'alba dei Nuraghi, p. 241
  19. ↑ SardiniaPoint.it – Interview with Giovanni Ugas, archaeologist and professor of the University of Cagliari (Italian)
  20. ↑ Giovanni Ugas - L'Alba dei Nuraghi pg.241,254 - Cagliari, 2005
  21. ↑ Contini & Tuttle, 1982: 171; Blasco Ferrer, 1989: 14.
  22. ↑ Story of Language, Mario Pei, 1949
  23. ↑ Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction, Cambridge University Press
  24. ↑ A. Mastino, Storia della Sardegna antica, p.173
  25. ↑ Francesco Cesare Casula – La Storia di Sardegna, pg.141
  26. ↑ Manlio Brigaglia – Storia della Sardegna , pg.158
  27. ↑ Minority Rights Group International – Sardinians
  28. ↑ Stranieri nella Cagliari del XVI e XVII secolo da "Los Otros: genti, culture e religioni diverse nella Sardegna spagnola”, Cagliari, 23 aprile 2004.
  29. ↑ Antonio Budruni, Da vila a ciutat: aspetti di vita sociale in Alghero, nei secoli XVI e XVII
  30. 1 2 3 Carlo Maxia, Studi Sardo-Corsi, Dialettologia e storia della lingua fra le due isole
  31. ↑ ^ Stefano Musso, op. cit., p.314
  32. ↑ Stefano Musso, Tra fabbrica e società: mondi operai nell'Italia del Novecento, Volume 33, p.316
  33. ↑ Quando i bergamaschi occuparono le case
  34. ↑ Il progresso sociale della Sardegna e lo sfruttamento industriale delle miniere – Sardegnaminiere.it
  35. ↑ Veneti nel Mondo (Venetians in the World) – Anno III – numero 1 – Gennaio 1999 (Italian)
  36. ↑ E al ritorno conquistarono le terre abbandonate – La Nuova Sardegna
  37. ↑ ISTAT Numero medio di figli per donna per regione 2002–2005
  38. ↑ ISTAT Tassi generici di natalità, mortalità e nuzialità per regione 2002–2005
  39. ↑ Any people who have not applied for Italian citizenship.
  40. ↑ Rapporto Istat – La popolazione straniera residente in Italia al 31º dicembre 2013
  41. 1 2 3 4 ISTAT
  42. ↑ Sardinia, Italy – Blue Zones
  43. ↑ Okinawa Exploration Backgrounds – Blue Zones
  44. ↑ Does Sardinia hold the secret of long life - mystery, The Guardian
  45. 1 2 Francesco Cucca: “Caratteri immutati da diecimila anni, ecco perché la Sardegna è speciale” (di Elena Dusi) - Sardegna Soprattutto
  46. ↑ Sardinia Exploration Backgrounds – Blue Zones
  47. ↑ Susan Pinker: why face-to-face contact matters in our digital age – The Guardian
  48. ↑ ISTAT Numero medio di figli per donna per regione 2002–2005
  49. 1 2 Ministero della Salute Speranza di vita e mortalità
  50. ↑ Matrimoni, Il processo di secolarizzazione in Sardegna - Sardinian Socio-Economic Observatory
  51. ↑ La mortalità per suicidio in Italia
  52. 1 2 Analfabetismo Italia – Censimento 2001
  53. 1 2 Sardegna Statistiche: Analfabeti
  54. ↑ Giuseppe Sanna – L'emigrazione della Sardegna (Emigration of Sardinia) (Italian)
  55. ↑ L'emigrazione sarda tra la fine dell' 800 e i primi del 900
  56. ↑ http://lipari.istat.it/digibib/Annuari/TO00176482Annuario_statistico_emigrazione_italiana_1876_1925.pdf Commissariato generale dell'emigrazione (a cura di), Annuario statistico della emigrazione italiana dal 1876 al 1925
  57. ↑ http://lipari.istat.it/digibib/Annuari/TO00176482Annuario_statistico_emigrazione_italiana_1876_1925.pdf Commissariato generale dell'emigrazione (a cura di), Annuario statistico della emigrazione italiana dal 1876 al 1925
  58. ↑ Il messagero sardo – Una piccola ma attiva colonia di sardi vive nello stato di Bahia (Italian)
  59. ↑
  60. ↑ Museo Nazionale Emigrazione Italiana – 25-03-2012
  61. ↑ Roberto Bolognesi, The phonology of Campidanian Sardinian : a unitary account of a self-organizing structure, The Hague : Holland Academic Graphics
  62. ↑ Amos Cardia, S'italianu in Sardìnnia, Iskra
  63. ↑ Sardinian is generally considered to be the most conservative Romance language, and was also the first language to split off genetically from the rest of the others, possibly as early as the 1st century BC. Most of the academic community usually subdivides Sardinian into two groups: the first one would be Logudorese (Sardu logudoresu) and the second one would be Campidanese (Sardu campidanesu).
  64. ↑ Danver, Steven. Native peoples of the world - An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures, and Contemporary Issues
  65. ↑ Lavinio, 1975, 2003
  66. ↑ Sardinia, Lonely Planet, Damien Simonis, pg. 44
  67. ↑ UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger
  68. ↑ It's a language born as a lingua franca of Tuscan-Corsican origin, with minor Ligurian, Catalan and Spanish influences and major Logudorese Sardinian influence.
  69. ↑ It's a Corsican dialect with Logudorese Sardinian influence.
  70. ↑ It's a Catalan dialect spoken in Alghero by the time Catalan invaders repopulated the town and expelled the indigenous population.
  71. ↑ It's a Ligurian dialect spoken in Carloforte and Calasetta.
  72. ↑ Franco Germanà, L'uomo in Sardegna dal paleolitico all'età nuragica p.202-206
  73. 1 2 Genome flux and stasis in a five millennium transect of European prehistory
  74. ↑ Lazaridis et al., Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans p.10
  75. 1 2 Haak et al 2015, Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe
  76. ↑ High Differentiation among Eight Villages in a Secluded Area of Sardinia Revealed by Genome-Wide High Density SNPs Analysis
  77. ↑ Genome-wide scan with nearly 700 000 SNPs in two Sardinian sub-populations suggests some regions as candidate targets for positive selection
  78. ↑ Il Dna sardo è il più vario d'Europa Ricerca sugli abitanti di Benetutti – Unione Sarda
  79. ↑ Italiani, i più ricchi in Europa … di diversità genetica – Uniroma
  80. ↑ Gli italiani sono il popolo con la varietà genetica più ricca d'Europa – La Repubblica
  81. ↑ Sidore, C., y colaboradores (2015). "Genome sequencing elucidates Sardinian genetic architecture and augments association analyses for lipid and blood inflammatory markers". Nature Genetics 47: 1272–1281. doi:10.1038/ng.3368.
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