Emperor Meiji

Emperor Meiji
明治天皇
Emperor of Japan
Reign November 3, 1867 –
July 29, 1912
Enthronement September 12, 1868
Predecessor Kōmei
Successor Taishō
Shoguns Tokugawa Yoshinobu
Prime Ministers
Born Mutsuhito
(1852-11-03)November 3, 1852
Kyoto, Japan
Died July 30, 1912(1912-07-30) (aged 59)
Tokyo, Japan
Burial September 13, 1912
Fushimi Momoyama no Misasagi (伏見桃山陵), Kyoto
Spouse Masako Ichijō
Issue
Among others...		 Yoshihito, Emperor Taishō
Masako, Princess Tsune
Fusako, Princess Kane
Nobuko, Princess Fumi
Toshiko, Princess Yasu
Full name
Mutsuhito (睦仁)
House Imperial House of Japan
Father Emperor Kōmei
Mother Nakayama Yoshiko
Religion Shinto
Signature

Emperor Meiji (明治天皇 Meiji-tennō, November 3, 1852 – July 30, 1912), or Meiji the Great (明治大帝 Meiji-taitei), was the 122nd Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from February 3, 1867 until his death on July 30, 1912. He presided over a time of rapid change in the Empire of Japan, as the nation quickly changed from a feudal state to a capitalist and imperial world power, characterized by Japan industrial revolution.

At the time of Meiji's birth in 1852, Japan was an isolated, pre-industrial, feudal country dominated by the Tokugawa shogunate and the daimyo, who ruled over the country's more than 250 decentralized domains. By the time of his death in 1912, Japan had undergone a political, social, and industrial revolution at home (See Meiji Restoration) and emerged as one of the great powers on the world stage. The New York Times summed up this transformation at his funeral in 1912, with the words: "the contrast between that which preceded the funeral car and that which followed it was striking indeed. Before it went old Japan; after it came new Japan."[1]

In Japan, the reigning Emperor is always referred to as "The Emperor"; since the modern era, a deceased Emperor is referred to by a posthumous name, which is the name of the era coinciding with the Emperor's reign. Having ruled during the Meiji period, the Emperor is thus, posthumously known as "the Meiji Emperor" or simply "Emperor Meiji". His personal name, which is not used in any formal or official context, was Mutsuhito (睦仁).

Background

The Tokugawa shogunate had established itself in the early 17th century.[2] Under its rule, the shogun governed Japan. About 180 lords, known as daimyo, ruled autonomous realms under the shogun, who occasionally called upon the daimyo for gifts, but did not tax them. The shogun controlled the daimyo in other ways; only the shogun could approve their marriages, and the shogun could divest a daimyo of his lands.[3]

In 1615, the first Tokugawa shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had officially retired from his position, and his son Tokugawa Hidetada, the titular shogun, issued a code of behavior for the nobility. Under it, the Emperor was required to devote his time to scholarship and the arts.[4] The Emperors under the shogunate appear to have closely adhered to this code, studying Confucian classics and devoting time to poetry and calligraphy.[5] They were only taught the rudiments of Japanese and Chinese history and geography.[5] The shogun did not seek the consent or advice of the Emperor for his actions.[6]

Emperors almost never left their palace compound, or Gosho in Kyoto, except after an Emperor retired or to take shelter in a temple if the palace caught on fire.[7] Few Emperors lived long enough to retire; of the Meiji Emperor's five predecessors, only his grandfather lived into his forties, dying aged forty-six.[6] The Imperial Family suffered very high rates of infant mortality; all five of the Emperor's brothers and sisters died as infants, and only five of his own fifteen children reached adulthood.[6]

Soon after taking control in the early seventeenth century, shogunate officials (known generically as bakufu) ended much Western trade with Japan, and barred missionaries from the islands. In addition to the substantial Chinese trade, only the Dutch continued trade with Japan, maintaining a post on the island of Dejima by Nagasaki.[8] However, by the early 19th century, European and American vessels appeared in the waters around Japan with increasing frequency.[9]

Boyhood

Prince Mutsuhito was born on November 3, 1852 in a small house on his maternal grandfather's property at the north end of the Gosho. At the time, a birth was believed to be polluting, so imperial princes were not born in the Palace, but usually in a structure, often temporary, near the pregnant woman's father's house. The boy's mother, Nakayama Yoshiko was a concubine (gon no tenji) to his father Emperor Kōmei, and was the daughter of the acting major counselor, Nakayama Tadayasu.[10] The young prince was given the name Sachinomiya, or Prince Sachi.[11]

Teenager Meiji Emperor with foreign representatives at the end of the Boshin War, 1868–1870

The young prince was born at a time of change for Japan. This change was symbolized dramatically when Commodore Matthew Perry and his squadron of what the Japanese dubbed "the Black Ships", sailed into the harbor at Edo (known since 1868 as Tokyo) in July 1853. Perry sought to open Japan to trade, and warned the Japanese of military consequences if they did not agree.[12] During the crisis brought on by Perry's arrival, the Shogunate took the highly unusual step of consulting with the Imperial Court, and Emperor Kōmei's officials advised that they felt the Americans should be allowed to trade and asked that they be informed in advance of any steps to be taken upon Perry's return. This request was initially honored by the Shogunate, and for the first time in at least 250 years, they consulted with the Imperial Court before making a decision.[13] Feeling that it could not win a war, the Japanese government allowed trade and submitted to what it dubbed the "Unequal Treaties", giving up tariff authority and the right to try foreigners in its own courts.[12] The Shogunate's willingness to consult with the Court was short-lived: in 1858, word of a treaty arrived with a letter stating that due to shortness of time, it had not been possible to consult. Emperor Kōmei was so incensed that he threatened to abdicate—though even this action would have required the consent of the shogun.[14]

Much of the emperor's boyhood is known only through later accounts, which his biographer Donald Keene points out are often contradictory. One contemporary described Mutsuhito as healthy and strong, somewhat of a bully, and exceptionally talented at sumo. Another states that the prince was delicate and often ill. Some biographers state that he fainted when he first heard gunfire, while others deny this account.[15] On August 16, 1860, Sachinomiya was proclaimed prince of the blood and heir to the throne, and was formally adopted by his father's consort. Later that year on November 11, he was proclaimed as the crown prince and given an adult name, Mutsuhito.[16] The prince began his education at the age of seven.[17] He proved an indifferent student, and later in life wrote poems regretting that he had not applied himself more in writing practice.[18]

Unrest and accession

The young Meiji emperor, 1872, albumen silver print by Uchida Kuichi
The young Meiji emperor in military dress, by Uchida Kuichi in 1873

By the early 1860s, the shogunate was under several threats. Representatives of foreign powers sought to increase their influence in Japan. Many daimyo were increasingly dissatisfied with bakufu handling foreign affairs. Large numbers of young samurai, known as shishi or "men of high purpose" began to meet and speak against the shogunate. The shishi revered the Emperor Kōmei and favored direct violent action to cure societal ills. While they initially desired the death or expulsion of all foreigners, the shishi would later begin to advocate the modernization of the country.[19] The bakufu enacted several measures to appease the various groups, and hoped to drive a wedge between the shishi and daimyo.[20]

Kyoto was a major center for the shishi, who had influence over the Emperor Kōmei. In 1863, they persuaded him to issue an "Order to expel barbarians". The Order placed the shogunate in a difficult position, since it knew it lacked the power to carry it out. Several attacks were made on foreigners or their ships, and foreign forces retaliated. Bakufu forces were able to drive most of the shishi out of Kyoto, and an attempt by them to return in 1864 was driven back. Nevertheless, unrest continued throughout Japan.[20]

The shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, in 1867

The prince's awareness of the political turmoil is uncertain.[21] During this time, he studied waka poetry, first with his father, then with the court poets.[22] As the prince continued his classical education in 1866, a new shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu took office, a reformer who desired to transform Japan into a Western-style state. Yoshinobu, who would prove to be the final shogun, met with resistance from among the bakufu, even as unrest and military actions continued. In mid-1866, a bakufu army set forth to punish rebels in southern Japan. The army was defeated.[23]

The Emperor Kōmei had always enjoyed excellent health, and was only 36 years old in January 1867. In that month, however, he fell seriously ill. Though he appeared to make some recovery, he suddenly worsened and died on January 30. Many historians believe the Emperor Kōmei was poisoned, a view not unknown at the time: British diplomat Sir Ernest Satow wrote, "it is impossible to deny that [the Emperor Kōmei's] disappearance from the political scene, leaving as his successor a boy of fifteen or sixteen [actually fourteen], was most opportune".[24]

The crown prince formally ascended to the throne on February 3, 1867, in a brief ceremony in Kyoto.[25] The new Emperor continued his classical education, which did not include matters of politics. In the meantime, the shogun, Yoshinobu, struggled to maintain power. He repeatedly asked for the Emperor's confirmation of his actions, which he eventually received, but there is no indication that the young Emperor was himself involved in the decisions. The shishi and other rebels continued to shape their vision of the new Japan, and while they revered the Emperor, they had no thought of having him play an active part in the political process.[26]

The political struggle reached its climax in late 1867. An agreement was reached by which Yoshinobu would maintain his title and some of his power, but the lawmaking power would be vested in a bicameral legislature based on the British model. However, the agreement fell apart and on November 9, 1867, Yoshinobu officially tendered his resignation to the Emperor, formally stepping down ten days later.[27] The following month, the rebels marched on Kyoto, taking control of the Imperial Palace.[28] On January 4, 1868, the Emperor ceremoniously read out a document before the court proclaiming the "restoration" of Imperial rule,[29] and the following month, documents were sent to foreign powers:[28]

The Emperor of Japan announces to the sovereigns of all foreign countries and to their subjects that permission has been granted to the Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu to return the governing power in accordance with his own request. We shall henceforward exercise supreme authority in all the internal and external affairs of the country. Consequently, the title of Emperor must be substituted for that of Tycoon, in which the treaties have been made. Officers are being appointed by us to the conduct of foreign affairs. It is desirable that the representatives of the treaty powers recognize this announcement.
Mutsuhito[30]

Yoshinobu resisted only briefly, but it was not until late 1869 that the final bakufu holdouts were finally defeated.[28] In the ninth month of the following year, the era was changed to Meiji, or "enlightened rule", which was later used for the emperor's posthumous name. This marked the beginning of the custom of an era coinciding with an emperor's reign, and posthumously naming the emperor after the era during which he ruled.

Soon after his accession, the Emperor's officials presented Ichijō Haruko to him as a possible bride. The future Empress was the daughter of an Imperial official, and was three years older than the groom, who would have to wait to wed until after his gembuku (manhood ceremony). The two married on January 11, 1869.[31] Known posthumously as Empress Shōken, she was the first Imperial Consort to receive the title of kōgō (literally, the Emperor's wife, translated as Empress Consort), in several hundred years. Although she was the first Japanese Empress Consort to play a public role, she bore no children. However, the Meiji Emperor had fifteen children by five official ladies-in-waiting. Only five of his children, a prince born to Lady Naruko (1855–1943), the daughter of Yanagiwara Mitsunaru, and four princesses born to Lady Sachiko (1867–1947), the eldest daughter of Count Sono Motosachi, lived to adulthood. They were:

Wedding of Crown Prince Yoshihito and Princess Kujō Sadako

Meiji era

Main article: Meiji Restoration
Meiji, Emperor of Japan and the Imperial Family (1900). From left to right: Princess Kane, the Crown Princess, Princess Fumi, the Emperor, Princess Yasu, the Empress, the Crown Prince and Princess Tsune.

Consolidation of power

Sixteen-year-old emperor, traveling from Kyoto to Tokyo at the end of 1868
Emperor Meiji by Takahashi Yuichi, Imperial Collection

Despite the ouster of the bakufu, no effective central government had been put in place by the rebels. On March 23, foreign envoys were first permitted to visit Kyoto and pay formal calls on the Emperor.[32] On April 7, 1868, the Emperor was presented with the Charter Oath, a five-point statement of the nature of the new government, designed to win over those who had not yet committed themselves to the new regime. This document, which the Emperor then formally promulgated, abolished feudalism and proclaimed a modern democratic government for Japan. The Charter Oath would later be cited by Emperor Hirohito in the Humanity Declaration as support for the imposed changes in Japanese government following World War II.[33] In mid-May, he left the Imperial precincts in Kyoto for the first time since early childhood to take command of the forces pursuing the remnants of the bakufu armies. Traveling in slow stages, he took three days to travel from Kyoto to Osaka, through roads lined with crowds.[34] There was no conflict in Osaka; the new leaders wanted the Emperor to be more visible to his people and to foreign envoys. At the end of May, after two weeks in Osaka (in a much less formal atmosphere than in Kyoto), the Emperor returned to his home.[35] Shortly after his return, it was announced that the Emperor would begin to preside over all state business, reserving further literary study for his leisure time.[36] Only from 1871 did the Emperor's studies include materials on contemporary affairs.[37]

The Meiji Emperor in his younger years (illustration, not a photograph)

On September 19, 1868, the Emperor announced that the name of the city of Edo was being changed to Tokyo, or "eastern capital". He was formally crowned in Kyoto on October 15 (a ceremony which had been postponed from the previous year due to the unrest). Shortly before the coronation, he announced that the new era, or nengō, would be called Meiji or "enlightened rule". Heretofore the nengō had often been changed multiple times in an emperor's reign; from now on, it was announced, there would only be one nengō per reign.[38]

Soon after his coronation, the Emperor journeyed to Tokyo by road, visiting it for the first time. He arrived in late November, and began an extended stay by distributing sake among the population. The population of Tokyo was eager for an Imperial visit; it had been the site of the Shogun's court and the population feared that with the abolition of the shogunate, the city might fall into decline.[39] It would not be until 1889 that a final decision was made to move the capital to Tokyo.[40] While in Tokyo, the Emperor boarded a Japanese naval vessel for the first time, and the following day gave instructions for studies to see how Japan's navy could be strengthened.[41] Soon after his return to Kyoto, a rescript was issued in the Emperor's name (but most likely written by court officials). It indicated his intent to be involved in government affairs, and indeed he attended cabinet meetings and innumerable other government functions, though rarely speaking, almost until the day of his death.[42]

Political reform

The successful revolutionaries organized themselves into a Council of State, and subsequently into a system where three main ministers led the government. This structure would last until the establishment of a prime minister, who would lead a cabinet in the western fashion, in 1885.[43] Initially, not even the retention of the emperor was certain; revolutionary leader Gotō Shōjirō later stated that some officials "were afraid the extremists might go further and abolish the Mikado".[44]

Japan's new leaders sought to reform the patchwork system of domains governed by the daimyo. In 1869, several of the daimyo who had supported the revolution gave their lands to the Emperor and were reappointed as governors, with considerable salaries. By the following year, all other daimyo had followed suit.

The Emperor in a formal session of the Diet. Ukiyo-e woodblock print by Yōshū Chikanobu, 1890
The Emperor in a formal session of the House of Peers. Woodblock print by Chikanobu, 1890

In 1871, the Emperor announced that domains were entirely abolished, as Japan was organized into 72 prefectures. The daimyo were compensated with annual salaries equal to ten percent of their former revenues (from which they did not now have to deduct the cost of governing), but were required to move to the new capital, Tokyo. Most retired from politics.[45]

The new administration gradually abolished most privileges of the samurai, including their right to a stipend from the government. However, unlike the daimyo, many samurai suffered financially from this change. Most other class-based distinctions were abolished. Legalized discrimination against the burakumin ended. However, these classes continue to suffer discrimination in Japan to the present time.[46]

Although a parliament was formed, it had no real power, and neither did the emperor. Power had passed from the Tokugawa into the hands of those Daimyo and other samurai who had led the Restoration. Japan was thus controlled by the Genro, an oligarchy, which comprised the most powerful men of the military, political, and economic spheres. The emperor, if nothing else, showed greater political longevity than his recent predecessors, as he was the first Japanese monarch to remain on the throne past the age of 50 since the abdication of Emperor Ōgimachi in 1586.

The Japanese take pride in the Meiji Restoration, as it and the accompanying industrialization allowed Japan to become the preeminent power in the Pacific and a major player in the world within a generation. Yet, the Meiji emperor's role in the Restoration remains debatable. He certainly did not control Japan, but how much influence he wielded is unknown. It is unlikely it will ever be clear whether he supported the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) or the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). One of the few windows we have into the Emperor's own feelings is his poetry, which seems to indicate a pacifist streak, or at least a man who wished war could be avoided. He composed the following pacifist poem in waka form:

よもの海
みなはらからと思ふ世に
など波風のたちさわぐらむ[47]
Yomo no umi
mina harakara to omofu yo ni
nado namikaze no tachi sawaguramu[47]
The seas of the four directions—
all are born of one womb:
why, then, do the wind and waves rise in discord?[47]

This poem was later recited by his grandson, Emperor Showa (Hirohito), in an Imperial Conference in September 1941, indirectly showing his own anti-war sentiment.

Near the end of his life several anarchists, including Kotoku Shusui, were executed (1911) on charges of having conspired to murder the sovereign. This conspiracy was known as the High Treason Incident (1910).

Death

The Meiji Emperor, suffering from diabetes, nephritis, and gastroenteritis, died of uremia. Although the official announcement said he died at 00:42 on July 30, 1912, the actual death was at 22:40 on July 29.[48][49] After the emperor's death in 1912, the Japanese Diet passed a resolution to commemorate his role in the Meiji Restoration. An iris garden in an area of Tokyo where the Meiji Emperor and Empress had been known to visit was chosen as the building's location for the Shinto shrine Meiji jingu. The shrine does not contain the emperor's grave, which is located at Fushimi-momoyama south of Kyoto.

Timeline of events during the life and reign of the Meiji Emperor

The Meiji emperor receiving the Order of the Garter from Prince Arthur of Connaught in 1906, as a consequence of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.[50]

The Meiji era ushered in many far-reaching changes to the ancient feudal society of Japan. A timeline of major events might include:

On film

Emperor Meiji is portrayed by Toshirō Mifune in the 1980 Japanese war drama film The Battle of Port Arthur (sometimes referred as 203 Kochi).[52] Directed by Toshio Masuda the film depicted the Siege of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War and starred Tatsuya Nakadai (as General Nogi Maresuke), Tetsurō Tamba (as General Kodama Gentarō) and Toshirō Mifune (as Emperor Meiji).

Emperor Meiji is also portrayed by Nakamura Shichinosuke II in The Last Samurai.

Concubines and children

Image Name Birth Death Mother Marriage
Wakamitsuteru-hiko no Mikoto
稚瑞照彦尊 (stillborn son)		 September 18, 1873 September 18, 1873 Lady Mitsuko
葉室光子
Wakatakayori-hime no Mikoto
稚高依姫尊 (stillborn daughter)		 November 13, 1873 November 13, 1873 Lady Natsuko
橋本夏子
Shigeko, Princess Ume
梅宮薫子内親王 		January 25, 1875 June 8, 1876 Lady Naruko
柳原愛子
Yukihito, Prince Take
建宮敬仁親王		 September 23, 1877July 26, 1878 Lady Naruko
柳原愛子
Yoshihito, Prince Haru (Emperor Taishō)
明宮嘉仁親王(大正天皇)		August 31, 1879December 25, 1926(1926-12-25) (aged 47) Lady Naruko
柳原愛子 		Empress Teimei
九条節子
Akiko, Princess Shige
滋宮韶子内親王		August 3, 1881September 6, 1883Lady Kotoko
千種任子
Fumiko, Princess Masu
増宮章子内親王		January 26, 1883September 8, 1883Lady Kotoko
千種任子
Shizuko, Princess Hisa
久宮静子内親王		February 10, 1886April 4, 1887Lady Sachiko
Michihito, Prince Aki
昭宮猷仁親王		August 22, 1887November 12, 1888Lady Sachiko
Masako, Princess Tsune (Princess Masako Takeda)
常宮昌子内親王		September 30, 1888March 8, 1940(1940-03-08) (aged 51)Lady SachikoTsunehisa, Prince Takeda
竹田宮恒久王
Fusako, Princess Kane (Fusako Kitashirakawa)
周宮房子内親王		January 28, 1890August 11, 1974(1974-08-11) (aged 84)Lady SachikoNaruhisa, Prince Kitashirakawa
北白川宮成久王
Nobuko, Princess Fumi (Princess Nobuko Asaka)
富美宮允子内親王		August 7, 1891November 3, 1933(1933-11-03) (aged 42)Lady SachikoYasuhiko, Prince Asaka
朝香宮鳩彦王
Teruhito, Prince Mitsu
満宮輝仁親王		November 30, 1893August 17, 1894Lady Sachiko
Toshiko, Princess Yasu (Toshiko Higashikuni)
泰宮聡子内親王		May 11, 1896March 5, 1978(1978-03-05) (aged 81)Lady SachikoNaruhiko, Prince Higashikuni
東久邇宮稔彦王
Takiko, Princess Sada
貞宮多喜子内親王		September 24, 1897January 11, 1899Lady Sachiko

Titles and styles

Styles of
The Emperor
Reference style His Imperial Majesty
Spoken style Your Imperial Majesty
Alternative style Sir

Honours

National honours

Foreign honours

Meiji House, part of the house system of Austrey School, Pakistan is named after Emperor Meiji.[53][54]

Issue

Name Birth Marriage Issue
Yoshihito, Emperor Taishō August 31, 1879
died, December 25, 1926 		May 25, 1900 Lady Sadako Kujō Hirohito, Emperor Shōwa
Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu
Nobuhito, Prince Takamatsu
Takahito, Prince Mikasa
Masako, Princess Tsune September 30, 1888
died, March 8, 1940 		April 30, 1908 Prince Tsunehisa Takeda Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda
Princess Reiko Takeda
Fusako, Princess Kane January 28, 1890
died, August 11, 1974 		April 29, 1909 Prince Naruhisa Kitashirakawa Prince Nagahisa Kitashirakawa
Princess Mineko Kitashirakawa
Princess Sawako Kitashirakawa
Princess Taeko Kitashirakawa
Nobuko, Princess Fumi August 7, 1891
died, November 3, 1933 		May 6, 1909 Prince Yasuhiko Asaka Princess Kikuko Asaka
Princess Takahiko Asaka
Prince Tadahito Asaka
Princess Kiyoko Asaka
Toshiko, Princess Yasu May 11, 1896
died, March 5, 1978 		May 18, 1915 Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni Prince Morihiro Higashikuni
Prince Moromasa Higashikuni
Prince Akitsune Higashikuni
Prince Toshihiko Higashikuni

Notes

  1. 1 2 http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9D05E3DB1F3CE633A25750C1A9669D946396D6CF "The Funeral Ceremonies of Meiji Tenno" reprinted from the Japan Advertiser Article 8—No Title], New York Times. October 13, 1912.
  2. ↑ Jansen 1995, p. vii.
  3. ↑ Gordon 2009, pp. 14–15.
  4. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 3.
  5. 1 2 Gordon 2009, pp. 3–4.
  6. 1 2 3 Gordon 2009, p. 2.
  7. ↑ Gordon 2009, pp. 4–5.
  8. ↑ Gordon 2009, p. 19.
  9. ↑ Gordon 2009, p. 47.
  10. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 10.
  11. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 14.
  12. 1 2 Gordon 2009, pp. 50–51.
  13. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 18.
  14. ↑ Keene 2002, pp. 39–41.
  15. ↑ Keene 2002, p. xii.
  16. ↑ Keene 2002, pp. 51–52.
  17. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 46.
  18. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 48.
  19. ↑ Gordon 2009, pp. 53–55.
  20. 1 2 Gordon 2009, pp. 55–56.
  21. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 73.
  22. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 78.
  23. ↑ Gordon 2009, pp. 57–58.
  24. ↑ Keene 2002, pp. 94–96.
  25. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 98.
  26. ↑ Keene 2002, pp. 102–104.
  27. ↑ Takano, p. 256.
  28. 1 2 3 Gordon 2009, p. 59.
  29. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 121.
  30. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 117.
  31. ↑ Keene 2002, pp. 105–107.
  32. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 133.
  33. ↑ Jansen 1995, p. 195.
  34. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 143.
  35. ↑ Keene 2002, pp. 145–146.
  36. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 147.
  37. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 171.
  38. ↑ Keene 2002, pp. 157–159.
  39. ↑ Keene 2002, pp. 160–163.
  40. ↑ Gordon 2009, p. 68.
  41. ↑ Keene 2002, pp. 163–165.
  42. ↑ Keene 2002, p. 168.
  43. ↑ Gordon 2009, p. 64.
  44. ↑ Jansen 1994, p. 342.
  45. ↑ Gordon 2009, p. 63.
  46. ↑ Gordon 2009, p. 65.
  47. 1 2 3 http://this-is-japan.com/en/blognews/item/215.html "Historical Events Today: 1867 - Prince Mutsuhito, 14, becomes Emperor Meiji of Japan (1867-1912).
  48. ↑ Takashi, Fujitani (1998). Splendid monarchy: power and pageantry in modern Japan. University of California Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-520-21371-5.
  49. ↑ "広報 No.589 明治の終幕" (PDF) (in Japanese). Sannohe town hall. Retrieved May 18, 2011.
  50. ↑ "The Mikado's Garter," New York Times. July 28, 1906.
  51. ↑ Considered by German Japanologist Johannes Justus Rein and described by Francis L. Hawks and Commodore Matthew Perry in their 1856 work, Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan Performed in the Years 1852, 1853 and 1854 under the Command of Commodore M.C. Perry, United States Navy., as the "Opening" of Japan.
  52. ↑ The Battle of Port Arthur (203 Koshi) in the Internet Movie Database
  53. ↑ http://www.as.edu.pk/information
  54. ↑ http://www.ermine.org.uk/schools

References

External links

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Emperor Meiji
Born: 3 November 1852 Died: 30 July 1912
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Emperor Kōmei		 Emperor of Japan
February 3, 1867 – July 30, 1912 		Succeeded by
Emperor Taishō
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