Neo-Nazism

Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II social or political movements seeking to revive the far-right-wing tenets of Nazism.[1][2][3][4] The term neo-Nazism can also refer to the ideology of these movements.[5][6]

Neo-Nazism borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism, racism, ableism, xenophobia, homophobia, antiziganism, antisemitism, and initiating the Fourth Reich. Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler.

Neo-Nazi activity is a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries, as well as international networks. In some European and Latin American countries, laws have been enacted that prohibit the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, anti-Semitic or homophobic views. Many Nazi-related symbols are banned in European countries in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism.[7][8][9]

Europe

Austria

The major postwar far-right party was the Austrian National Democratic Party (NDP), until it was banned in 1988 for violating Austria's anti-Nazi legislation, Verbotsgesetz 1947.[10] The Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties, and the economy stagnated. Jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for Nazism, calling its employment policy effective. In the 1994 Austrian election, the FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote, as well as 33 percent of the vote in Carinthia and 22 percent in Vienna; showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics.[11]

Historian Walter Laqueur writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to address Schutzstaffel (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in the traditional sense, since it has not made anti-communism an important issue, and does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th-century Viennese mayor Karl Lueger, that involves nationalism, xenophobic populism, and authoritarianism.[12] Professor Ali Mazrui, however, identified the FPÖ as neo-Nazi in a BBC world lecture.[13]

Haider, who in 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the Alliance for Austria's Future, was killed in a traffic accident in October, 2008.[14]

Barbara Rosenkranz, the Freedom Party's candidate for the Austrian presidential election, 2010, is controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements.[15] Rosenkranz is married to Horst Rosenkranz, a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, and known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything "dishonourable" in her husband's activities.[16]

The volume Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945 (Right-wing Extremism in Austria since 1945), issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active far right organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to liberalization programs in secondary schools and universities that emphasized Austrian identity and democratic traditions. Votes for the RFS (Ring Freiheitlicher Studenten), the Freedom Party's academic student organization, in student elections fell from 30% in the 1960s to 2% in 1987. In the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft (Austrian Students' Association), the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year.[17]

A radical non-parliamentary, anti-democratic far-right organization active in Austria was the VAPO (Volkstreue Außerparlamentarische Opposition) founded by the Austrian neo-Nazi Gottfried Küssel in 1986, who publicly declared to be a member of the US-American neo-Nazi organization NSDAP/AO since 1977. Neither an association nor a party, the VAPO was loosely organized in "Kameradschaften" (comradeships) and defined itself as a "battle alliance of nationalist groups and persons" with the aims of "reestablishing the NSDAP" and the "seizure of power".[18] In 1993 Küssel was repeatedly convicted on charges of "NS-Wiederbetätigung" (re-engagement in national socialism) under the Austrian anti-Nazi law (Verbotsgesetz 1947) and sentenced to ten years of prison.[19] The VAPO de facto disbanded in the course of the imprisonment of its leading figures, much due to its loose organizational structure. Due to procedural errors Küssel's sentence was revoked by the OGH (Austrian Supreme Court) and the trial reheld in 1994 where Küssel was sentenced to eleven years in prison.[20]

Belgium

Anti-Nazi logo in Belgium

A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Blood, Soil, Honour and Loyalty), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (Blood and Honour). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, antisemitism and supporters of censorship. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium.[21][22] According to journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances,[23] the ultras of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through Westland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse.[24]

A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border: Kleine-Brogel, Peer, Brussels (Royal military school) and Zedelgem– as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives, and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode." The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far-right movement De Nationale Alliantie.[25][26][27][28][29][30]

Bosnia and Herzegovina

The neo-Nazi white nationalist organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa (Bosnian Movement of National Pride) was founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in July 2009. Their model is the Waffen-SS Handschar Division, composed of Bosnian Muslim volunteers.[31] They proclaimed their main enemies to be "Jews, Gypsies, Serbian Chetniks, the Croatian separatists, Josip Broz Tito, Communists, homosexuals and blacks".[32][33] They mix an ideology of Bosnian nationalism, National Socialism and white nationalism. The group is led by a person nicknamed Sauberzwig, after the commander of the 13 SS Handschar. The group's strongest area of operations is in the Tuzla area of Bosnia.

Croatia

Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Pavelić and the Ustaše, a fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement.[34] The Ustaše regime committed a genocide against Serbs, Jews and Gypsies. At the end of World War II, many Ustaše members fled to the West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and terrorist activities (which were tolerated because of Cold War hostilities).[35][36] Jonathan Levy, a lawyer who represented plaintiffs in a 1999 lawsuit against the Ustaše and others, said: "Many are still terrified of the Ustashe, the Serbs particularly. Unlike the Nazi Party, the Ustashe still exist and have a party headquarters in Zagreb."[37]

In 1999, Zagreb's Square of the Victims of Fascism was renamed The Square of The Great Men of Croatia, provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude toward the Holocaust.[38] In 2000, the city council renamed the square the Square of the Victims of Fascism.[39] Many streets in Croatia were renamed after the prominent Ustaše figure Mile Budak, which provoked outrage amongst the Serbian minority. Since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of Mile Budak or other persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent.[40] A plaque in Slunj with the inscription "Croatian Knight Jure Francetić" was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of the Black Legion. The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities.[40][41]

In 2003, an attempt was made to amend the Croatian penal code by adding articles prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial, but this attempt was prevented by the Croatian constitutional court.[42] An amendment was added in 2006 to prohibit any type of hate crime based on factors such as race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion or national origin.[43]

There have been instances of hate speech in Croatia, such as the use of the phrase Srbe na vrbe! ("(hang) Serbs on the willow trees!"). In 2004, an Orthodox church was spray-painted with pro-Ustaše graffiti.[44][45] During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other suspected war criminals have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Pavelić.[46] On May 17, 2007, a concert in Zagreb by Thompson, a popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, some of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan "Za dom spremni" (for the homeland – ready!). This event prompted the Jerusalem office of the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president.[47][48][49][50][51] In 2007, Austrian authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at a gathering of Croatian nationalists in Bleiburg, Austria.[52][53]

Czech Republic

Czech Republic strictly punishes Neo-Nazism (Czech: Neonacismus). According to the report from Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic Neo-Nazis committed more than 211 crimes in 2013. Czech Republic has more than 150 members of various groups. One of them is group Wotan Jugend based in Germany.

Estonia

In 2006, Roman Ilin, a Jewish theatre director from St. Petersburg, Russia, was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from an underground tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident.[54] When a dark-skinned French student was attacked in Tartu, the head of an association of foreign students claimed that the attack was characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. An Estonian police official, however, stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over the previous two years.[55] In November 2006, the Estonian government passed a law banning the display of Nazi symbols.[56]

The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur's Report noted that community representatives and non-governmental organizations devoted to human rights had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups were active in Estonia—particularly in Tartu—and had perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities.[57]

France

Neo-Nazi organizations in France are outlawed, yet a significant number exist.[58] Legal far-right groups are also numerous, and include the Bloc identitaire, created by former members of Christian Bouchet's Unité Radicale group. Close to National Bolshevism and Third Position ideologies, Unité Radicale was dissolved in 2002 following Maxime Brunerie's assassination attempt on July 14, 2002 against then-President Jacques Chirac. Christian Bouchet had previously been a member of Nouvelle Résistance (NR), an offshoot of Troisième Voie (Third Way) which described itself as "nationalist revolutionary". Although Nouvelle Résistance at first opposed the "national conservatives" of Jean-Marie Le Pen's National Front, it changed strategy, adopting the slogan "Less Leftism! More Fascism![59] " Nouvelle Résistance was also a successor to Jean-François Thiriart's Jeune Europe neo-Nazi Europeanist movement of the 1960s, which had participated in the National Party of Europe, along with Oswald Mosley's Union Movement, Otto Strasser and others. The French government estimated that neo-Nazi groups in France had 3,500 members.[60] In 2011 alone, 129 violent actions were recorded in France against the Jewish population, with 60.5% of those cases occurring in the Île-de-France region. The CNCDH notes that in 19 cases, these violent actions could be imputed to persons of ‘Arab origin or Muslim confession’, with 15 others relating to neo-Nazi ideology, mainly consisting of displaying swastikas. In relation to these violent actions 36 persons were arrested, 28 of whom were minors. Of the 129 violent actions recorded, 50.4% were for degradations, 44.2% for violence and assault and battery, and the remaining 5.4% for arson. In France in 2011, 260 threats were recorded, with 53% of those (138 cases) occurring in the Île-de-France region. Of these threats, 15% related to neo-Nazi ideology, with another 14% imputable to persons of ‘Arab origin or Muslim confession’. Thirty-two persons were arrested in relation to these threats, nine of whom were minors. Of the 260 threats, 44% consisted of speech acts and threatening gestures and insults, 38% of graffiti and the remaining 18% of pamphlets and emails.[61]

Germany

Main article: Far right in Germany
Anti-Nazi demonstration in Dresden, Germany, February 13, 2012

In Germany, immediately after World War II, Allied forces and the new German government attempted to prevent the creation of a new Nazi movement through a process known as denazification. However, with the onset of the Cold War it had lost interest in prosecuting anyone.[62] Many of the more than 90,000 Nazi war criminals recorded in German files were serving in positions of prominence under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.[63][64] Not until the 1960s were the former concentration camp personnel prosecuted by West Germany in the Belzec trial, Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, Treblinka trials, Chełmno trials, and the Sobibór trial.[65] The government had passed laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs. Displaying the swastika became an offense punishable by up to one year imprisonment. Nevertheless, some former National Socialists retained their political beliefs and passed them down to new generations who formed the extreme-right National Democratic Party of Germany.[66]

After German reunification in the 1990s, post-National Socialist groups gained more followers, mostly among the younger generation in the former East Germany.[66] They have expressed an aversion to people from Slavic countries (especially Poland) and people of other national backgrounds who moved from the former West Germany into the former East Germany after Germany was reunited.[67] According to the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2012, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6,000 neo-Nazis.[68] The Neo-Nazi organizations are not outlawed in Germany,[66] although Holocaust denial is, according to the German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch § 86a) and § 130 (public incitement).

Greece

The far right political party Golden Dawn (Χρυσή Αυγή - Chrysi Avyi) is generally labelled neo-Nazi, although the group rejects this label. A few Golden Dawn members participated in the Bosnian War in the Greek Volunteer Guard (GVG) and were present in Srebrenica during the Srebrenica massacre.[69][70]

Golden Dawn has spoken out in favour of the Assad regime in Syria,[71] and the Strasserist group Black Lily have claimed to have sent mercenaries to Syria to fight alongside the Syrian regime, specifically mentioning their participation in the Battle of al-Qusayr.[72]

In the elections of 6 May 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.97% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament for the first time with 21 representatives. Due to no coalition amongst the elected parties so as to form a Greek Government, new elections were proclaimed.

In the elections of 17 June 2012, Golden Dawn received 6.92% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament with 18 representatives.

Hungary

Further information: History of the Jews in Hungary

Today, Neo-Nazism in Hungary takes the form of hatred towards Judaism and Israel, it can be observed from many prominent Hungarian politicians, e.g. from MIÉP-Jobbik Third Way Alliance of Parties. Antisemitism in Hungary is manifested mainly in far right publications and demonstrations. Hungarian Justice and Life Party supporters continued their tradition of shouting antisemitic slogans and tearing the US flag to shreds at their annual rallies in Budapest in March 2003 and 2004, commemorating the 1848–49 revolution. Furthermore, during the demonstrations held to celebrate the anniversary of the 1956 uprising, a post-Communist tradition celebrated by the left and right of the political spectrum, antisemitic and anti-Israel slogans were heard from the right wing. The center-right traditionally keeps its distance from the right-wing Csurka-led and other far-right demonstrations.[73]

Netherlands

The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism reports that on 17 May 2011 in Leek, Groningen, antisemitic graffiti was found at a Jewish school. The graffiti consisted of a swastika and the text "C18", or Combat 18, a neo-Nazi organisation active throughout Europe. The number 18 refers to the initials of Adolf Hitler, A and H being the first and eighth letters of the alphabet, respectively.[74]

Poland

Although several small far-right and anti-semitic organisations exist, most notably NOP and ONR, they frequently adhere to Polish nationalism and National Democracy, in which Nazism is generally considered to be against ultra-nationalist principles, and therefore although classed as white nationalist and fascist movements, they are at the same time considered anti-Nazi. Some elements may resemble neo-Nazi features, but the groups frequently dissociate themselves from Nazi elements, claiming such acts as unpatriotic and arguing that Nazism misappropriated or slightly altered several pre-existing symbols and features, such as distinguishing the Roman salute from the Nazi salute.[75]

Romania

See also: Iron Guard

Multiple organizations in Romania adopt neo-nazi discourse and symbolism. Some of them include Noua Dreaptă and the "Everything For the Country" Party, founded by former Iron Guard members. Another far-right political party is the Greater Romania Party.[76] Neo-nazism in Romania targets mainly the Romani people (gypsies), ethnic Hungarians,[77] the LGBT community[78] and more recently Muslims.[79]

Hungarian nationalist organizations such as HVIM are also present in the country, especially in Transylvania, a former Austro-Hungarian territory and home to a significant number of ethnic Hungarians.[80]

Russia

Neo-Nazism in Russia: The photograph was taken at an anti-homosexual demonstration in Moscow in October 2010

Many Russian neo-Nazis openly admire Adolf Hitler and use the swastika as their symbol. Russian neo-Nazis are characterized by racism, antisemitism, homophobia, Islamophobia and extreme xenophobia towards people from Asia.[81] Their ideology centers on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as Jews, Caucasians, homosexuals, Central Asians, East Asians, Roma people, and Muslims. There is also a widespread gay rights nazi skinhead subculture with its own Vkontakte group, GASH, and an alleged 1700 members in Moscow alone.[82]

Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. Paramilitary organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics, hand to hand combat and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally.

Some observers have noted a subjective irony of Russians embracing Nazism, because one of Hitler's ambitions at the start of World War II was the Generalplan Ost (Master Plan East) which envisaged to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from central and eastern Europe (e.g., Russians, Ukrainians, Poles etc.).[83] Russian neo-Nazis deny the authenticity of this plan and instead emphasize the 1939-1941 Nazi-Soviet alliance.[83] At the end of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, over 25 million Soviet citizens had died.[84] In a 2007 news story, ABC News reported, "In a country that lost more people defeating the Nazis than any other country, there are now an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 neo-Nazis, half of the world's total."[85]

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused great economic and social problems, including widespread unemployment and poverty. Several far right paramilitary organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among marginalized, lesser educated and unemployed youths. Of the three major age groups — youths, adults, and the elderly — youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the Communist Party, and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income.

Russian National Unity (RNE), founded in 1990 and led by Alexander Barkashov, has claimed to have members in 250 cities. RNE adopted the swastika as its symbol, and sees itself as the avant-garde of a coming national revolution. It is critical of other major far right organizations, such as the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR). Historian Walter Laqueur calls RNE far closer to the Nazi model than the LDPR. RNE publishes several news sheets; one of them, Russky poryadok, claims to have a circulation of 150,000. Full members of RNE are called Soratnik (comrades in arms), receive combat training at locations near Moscow, and many of them work as security officers or armed guards.[86]

On August 15, 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black swastika flag.[87] Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine ... There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."[88] A Russian neo-Nazi group called the Russian National Socialist Party claimed responsibility for the murders.

Serbia

Neo-Nazism in Serbia is mostly based on national and religious factors. Nacionalni stroj (National Alignment), a neo-Nazi organization[89][90] from the Vojvodina region, orchestrated several incidents. Charges were laid against 18 of the leading members.[91]

Sweden

Neo-Nazi activities in Sweden have previously been limited to white supremacist groups, none of which has more than a few hundred members.[92] The main neo-Nazi organization as of 2015 is the Nordic Resistance Movement.

Switzerland

The neo-Nazi and white power skinhead scene in Switzerland has seen significant growth in the 1990s and 2000s.[93] It is reflected in the foundation of the Partei National Orientierter Schweizer in 2000, which resulted in an improved organizational structure of the neo-Nazi and white supremacist scene.

Turkey

Apart from neo-fascist[94][95][96][97][98][99][100] Grey Wolves and the Turkish ultranationalist[101][102][103][104][105][106] Nationalist Movement Party there are some Neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey like the Turkish Nazi Party[107] or the National Socialist Party of Turkey,[108] mainly based on the internet.[109][110][111]

Ukraine

Fans of the FC Karpaty Lviv football club honoring the Waffen-SS Galizien division, in Lviv, Ukraine, 2013

In 1991 Svoboda was founded as the 'Social-National Party of Ukraine'.[112] The party combined radical nationalism and neo-Nazi features.[113] It was renamed and rebranded 13 years later as 'All-Ukrainian Association Svoboda' in 2004 under Oleh Tyahnybok. Political scientists Olexiy Haran and Alexander J. Motyl contend that Svoboda is not fascist but they are radical and that they are better compared to the Far-Right movements like Tea Party than fascists or neo-Nazis.[114][115] In 2005 Victor Yushchenko appointmented Volodymyr Viatrovych to head of the Ukrainian security service (SBU) archives. According to Professor Per Anders Rudling, this allowed Viatrovych not only to sanitize ultra nationalist history, but also officially promote its dissemination along with OUN(b) ideology based on 'ethnic purity' coupled with anti-Russian, anti-Polish and anti-semitic rhetoric.[116]:229–230 The extreme right wing now capitalize on 'Yushchenkoist' propaganda initiatives.[116]:235 This includes Iuryi Mykhal’chyshyn, an ideologue who proudly confesses himself part of the fascist tradition.[116]:240 The autonomous nationalists focus on recruiting younger people, participates in violent actions, quoting "anti-bourgeoism, anti-capitalism, anti-globalism, anti-democratism, anti-liberalism, anti-bureaucratism, anti-dogmatism". In 2009 Svoboda fetched 34,7% of votes in Ternopil Oblast local elections. Svoboda is part of a right wing Alliance of European National Movements.[116] Per Anders Rulig has suggested that "Viktor Yanukovych has indirectly aided Svoboda" by "granting Svoboda representatives disproportionate attention in the media".[116]:247

After Yanokovych's ouster in February 2014, the interim Yatsenyuk Government placed 4 Svoboda members in leading positions: Oleksandr Sych as Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine, Ihor Tenyukh as Minister of Defense, lawyer Ihor Shvaika as Minister of Agrarian Policy and Food and Andriy Mokhnyk as Minister of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine.[117] However, the U.S. State Department has stated in a March 5, 2014 fact sheet that "Far-right wing ultranationalist groups, some of which were involved in open clashes with security forces during the EuroMaidan protests, are not represented in the Rada."[118]

Ukraine's National Security and Defence Council chief Andriy Parubiy, one of the founders of Social-National Party of Ukraine,[119] oversees the "anti–terrorist" operation against pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine.[120] Andriy Biletsky, the head of the ultra-nationalist and neo-Nazi political groups Social-National Assembly and Patriots of Ukraine,[121] is commander of the Azov Battalion,[122] a pro-Ukrainian volunteer paramilitary group fighting pro-Russian separatists in Donbas region.[123][124]

In 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election, right-wing parties Svoboda and Right Sector (representing ultranationalists which were involved in clashes with security forces during Euromaidan) did not pass the 5% threshold, cumulatively receiving only 8 seats in the 450-seat Ukrainian parliament (less than 2% of all seats).

In June 2015, Democratic Representative John Conyers and his Republican colleague Ted Yoho offered bipartisan amendments to block the U.S. military training of Ukraine's Azov Battalion of the Ukrainian National Guard.[125] Some members of the battalion are openly white supremacists.[122] Andriy Biletsky, the commander of the Azov Battalion and leader of the neo-Nazi political groups Social-National Assembly and Patriots of Ukraine,[121] is member of the Ukrainian Parliament.[125] The First Deputy Chairman of the Ukrainian Parliament, Andriy Parubiy,[126] is co-founder of the neo-Nazi Social-National Party of Ukraine.[127]

United Kingdom

Asia

Israel

Neo-Nazi activity is not common or widespread in Israel, and the few activities reported have all been the work of extremists, who were punished severely. One notable case is that of Patrol 36, a cell in Petah Tikva made up of eight teenage immigrants from the former Soviet Union who had been attacking foreign workers and homosexuals, and vandalizing synagogues with Nazi images.[128][129] These neo-Nazis were reported to have operated in cities across Israel, and have been described as being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism in Europe;[128][129][130] mostly influenced by similar movements in Russia and Ukraine, as the rise of the phenomenon is widely credited to immigrants from those two states, the largest sources of emigration to Israel.[131] Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the Law of Return to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for – and the subsequent deportation of – neo-Nazis.[129]

Mongolia

Flag of the Dayar Mongol, a neo-Nazi party in Mongolia

Neo-Nazism is a growing political force in Mongolia. From 2008, Mongolian Neo-Nazi groups have defaced buildings in Ulaanbaatar, smashed Chinese shopkeepers' windows, and killed pro-Chinese Mongols. The Neo-Nazi Mongols' targets for violence are Chinese, Koreans,[132] Mongol women who sleep with Chinese men, and LGBT people.[133] They wear Nazi uniforms and revere the Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan. Though Tsagaan Khass leaders say they do not support violence, they are self-proclaimed Nazis. "Adolf Hitler was someone we respect. He taught us how to preserve national identity," said the 41-year-old co-founder, who calls himself Big Brother. "We don't agree with his extremism and starting the Second World War. We are against all those killings, but we support his ideology. We support nationalism rather than fascism." Some have ascribed it to poor historical education.[132]

Taiwan

The National Socialism Association (NSA) is a neo-Nazi political organisation founded in Taiwan in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi (Chinese: 許娜琦), at that time a 22-year-old female political science graduate of Soochow University. The NSA has an explicit stated goal of obtaining the power to govern the state. The NSA views Adolf Hitler as its leader and often proclaims "Long live Hitler" (Heil Hitler) as one of its slogans. The Simon Wiesenthal Centre condemned the National Socialism Association on March 13, 2007 for championing the former Nazi dictator and blaming democracy for social unrest in Taiwan.[134]

Americas

Brazil

Further information: Racism in Brazil

Several Brazilian neo-Nazi gangs appeared in the 1990s in Southern and Southeastern Brazil, regions with mostly white people, with their acts gaining more media coverage and public notoriety in the 2000s.[135][136][137][138][139][140][141] Some members of Brazilian neo-Nazi groups have been associated with football hooliganism.[142]

Their targets have included African, South American and Asian immigrants; Jews; Afro-Brazilians and internal migrants with origins in the northern regions of Brazil (who are mostly brown-skinned or Afro-Brazilian);[140][143] homeless people, prostitutes; recreational drug users; feminists and—more frequently reported in the media—homosexuals, bisexuals, the third-gendered and the transgendered.[139][144][145] News of their attacks has played a role in debates about anti-discrimination laws in Brazil (including to some extent hate speech laws) and the issues of sexual orientation and gender identity.[146][147][148]

Canada

Neo-Nazism in Canada began with the formation of the Canadian Nazi Party in 1965. In the 1970s and 1980s, neo-Nazism continued to spread in the country as organizations including the Western Guard and Church of the Creator (later renamed as Creativity) promoted white supremacist ideals.[149] Founded in the United States in 1973, Creativity calls for white people to wage racial holy war (Rahowa) against Jews and other perceived enemies.[150]

Don Andrews founded the Nationalist Party of Canada in 1977. The purported goals of the unregistered party are "the promotion and maintenance of European Heritage and Culture in Canada," but the party is known for anti-Semitism and racism. Many influential neo-Nazi Leaders, such as Wolfgang Droege, were affiliated with the party, but many of its members left to join the Heritage Front, which was founded in 1989.[151]

Droege founded the Heritage Front in Toronto at a time when leaders of the white supremacist movement were "disgruntled about the state of the radical right" and wanted to unite unorganized groups of white supremacists into an influential and efficient group with common objectives.[151] Plans for the organization began in September 1989, and the formation of the Heritage Front was formally announced a couple of months later in November. In the 1990s, George Burdi of Resistance Records and the band Rahowa popularized the Creativity movement and the white power music scene.[152]

Controversy and dissention has left many Canadian neo-Nazi organizations dissolved or weakened.[151]

Chile

Main article: Nazism in Chile
Flag of the National Socialist Movement of Chile

After the dissolution of the National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNSCH) in 1938, notable former members of MNSCH migrated into Partido Agrario Laborista (PAL), obtaining high positions.[153] Not all former MNSCH members joined the PAL; some continued to form parties that followed the MNSCH model until 1952.[153] A new old-school Nazi party was formed in 1964 by school teacher Franz Pfeiffer.[153] Among the activities of this group were the organization of a Miss Nazi beauty contest and the formation of a Chilean branch of the Ku Klux Klan.[153] The party disbanded in 1970. Pfeiffer attempted to restart it in 1983 in the wake of a wave of protests against the Augusto Pinochet regime.[153]

Nicolás Palacios considered the "Chilean race" to be a mix of two bellicose master races: the Visigoths of Spain and the Mapuche (Araucanians) of Chile.[154] Palacios traces the origins of the Spanish component of the "Chilean race" to the coast of the Baltic Sea, specifically to Götaland in Sweden,[154] one of the supposed homelands of the Goths. Palacios claimed that both the blonde-haired and the bronze-coloured Chilean Mestizo share a "moral physonomy" and a masculine psychology.[155] He opposed immigration from Southern Europe, and argued that Mestizos who are derived from south Europeans lack "cerebral control" and are a social burden.[156]

Costa Rica

Several neo-Nazi groups exist in Costa Rica, and the first to be in the spotlight was the Costa Rican National Socialist Party, which is now disbanded.[157] Others include Costa Rican National Socialist Youth, Costa Rican National Socialist Alliance, New Social Order, Costa Rican National Socialist Resistance (which is Costa Rica's member of the World Union of National Socialists)[158] and the Hiperborean Spear Society. The groups normally target Jewish-Costa Ricans, Afro-Costa Ricans, Communists, homosexuals and especially Nicaraguan and Colombian immigrants. The media has discovered the existence of an underground neo-Nazi group inside the police.[159]

United States

See also: Alt-right
The NSM rally on the West lawn of the US Capitol, Washington DC, 2008

There are several neo-Nazi groups in the United States. The National Socialist Movement (NSM), with about 400 members in 32 states,[160] is currently the largest neo-Nazi organization in the United States.[161] After World War II, new organizations formed with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. The National States' Rights Party, founded in 1958 by Edward Reed Fields and J. B. Stoner countered racial integration in the Southern United States with Nazi-inspired publications and iconography. The American Nazi Party, founded by George Lincoln Rockwell in 1959, achieved high-profile coverage in the press through its public demonstrations.[162]

The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, and anti-Semitic views. A First Amendment landmark case was National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie, in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in Chicago.

The Institute for Historical Review, formed in 1978, is a Holocaust denial body associated with neo-Nazism.[163]

Organizations which report upon American neo-Nazi activities include the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. While a small minority of American neo-Nazis draw public attention, most operate underground, so they can recruit, organize and raise funds without interference or harassment. American neo-Nazis are known to attack, torment, and harass Jews, African Americans, Slavic Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, Asian Americans, Arab Americans, Romani Americans, Pacific Islands Americans, homosexuals, "race traitors" and people with different political or religious opinions.[164] American neo-Nazi groups often operate websites, occasionally stage public demonstrations, and maintain ties to groups in Europe and elsewhere.[165]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Lee McGowan (2002). The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present. Pearson Education. pp. 9, 178. ISBN 0-582-29193-3. OCLC 49785551.
  2. ↑ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda; Wolfgang Neugebauer. "Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology". Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with Nazism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust.
  3. ↑ Martin Frost. "Neo Nazism". The term neo-Nazism refers to any social or political movement seeking to revive National Socialism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves.
  4. ↑ Lee, Martin A. 1997. The Beast Reawakens. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, pp. 85–118, 214–234, 277–281, 287–330, 333–378. On Volk concept," and a discussion of ethnonationalist integralism, see pp. 215–218
  5. ↑ Peter Vogelsang & Brian B. M. Larsen (2002). "Neo-Nazism". The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. Neo-Nazism is the name for a modern offshoot of Nazism. It is a radically right-wing ideology, whose main characteristics are extreme nationalism and violent xenophobia. Neo-Nazism is, as the word suggests, a modern version of Nazism. In general, it is an incoherent right-extremist ideology, which is characterised by ‘borrowing’ many of the elements that constituted traditional Nazism.
  6. ↑ Ondřej Cakl & Klára Kalibová (2002). "Neo-Nazism". Faculty of Humanities at Charles University in Prague, Department of Civil Society Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. Neo-Nazism: An ideology which draws upon the legacy of the Nazi Third Reich, the main pillars of which are an admiration for Adolf Hitler, aggressive nationalism ("nothing but the nation"), and hatred of Jews, foreigners, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and everyone who is different in some way.
  7. ↑ Werner Bergmann; Rainer Erb (1997). Anti-Semitism in Germany: The Post-Nazi Epoch Since 1945. Transaction Publishers. p. 91. ISBN 1-56000-270-0. OCLC 35318351. In contrast to today, in which rigid authoritarianism and neo-Nazism are characteristic of marginal groups, open or latent leanings toward Nazi ideology in the 1940s and 1950s
  8. ↑ Martin Polley (200). A-Z of Modern Europe Since 1789. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 0-415-18597-1. OCLC 49569961. Neo-Nazism, drawing heavily both on the ideology and aesthetics of the NSDAP, emerged in many parts of Europe and elsewhere in the economic crises of the 1970s, and has continued to influence a number of small political groups.
  9. ↑ "Neo-Nazism". ApologeticsIndex. The term Neo-Nazism refers to any social, political and/or (quasi) religious movement seeking to revive Nazism. Neo-Nazi groups are racist hate groups that pattern themselves after Hitler’s philosophies. Examples include: Aryan Nations, National Alliance
  10. ↑ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda (1997). "'Revisionism' in Germany and Austria: The Evolution of a Doctrine". In Hermann Kurthen, Werner Bergmann, & Rainer Erb. Antisemitism and Xenophobia in Germany After Unification. Oxford University Press. p. 188. ISBN 0-19-510485-4.
  11. ↑ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, pp. 80, 116, 117
  12. ↑ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 117-118
  13. ↑ "World Lectures | BBC World Service". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
  14. ↑ "Austria's Haider dies in accident". BBC News. 2008-10-11. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
  15. ↑ "Austria spooked by Nazi past in election". BBC News. 2010-04-23. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
  16. ↑ "Reich mother on the march in Hitler's homeland". The Independent (London). 2010-04-24. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
  17. ↑ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda/Wolfgang Neugebauer. (1996). 'Incorrigibly Right – Right-Wing Extremists, "Revisionists" and Anti-Semites in Austrian Politics Today'. Vienna-New York.
  18. ↑ "DÖW Startseite". doew.at.
  19. ↑ "Dokumentationsarchiv des österreichischen Widerstandes - VHandbuch des österreichischen Rechtsextremismus, Wien 1994". Archived from the original on 2007-02-07.
  20. ↑ "OGH - Geschäftszahl 13Os4/94". Ris.bka.gv.at. 1994-06-21. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
  21. ↑ De nouvelles découvertes, La Libre Belgique, 8 September 2006 (French)
  22. ↑ Mandats d'arrêts confirmés pour les néo-nazis, Le Soir, 13 September 2006 (French)
  23. ↑ http://www.resistances.be/network
  24. ↑ Les néonazis voulaient déstabiliser le pays, Le Soir, Jeudi 7 septembre 2006 (French)
  25. ↑ Un groupe terroriste néonazi démantelé, Le Nouvel Observateur, 8 septembre 2006 (French)
  26. ↑ La Belgique démantèle un groupe néonazi préparant des attentats, Le Monde, 7 septembre 2006 (French)
  27. ↑ Des militaires néonazis voulaient commettre des attentats, RTL Belgique, 8 septembre 2006 (French)
  28. ↑ Des militaires néonazis voulaient déstabiliser la Belgique par des attentats, AFP, September 8, 2006 (French)
  29. ↑ La Belgique découvre, stupéfaite, un complot néonazi au sein de son armée, AFP, September 8, 2006. (French)
  30. ↑ Un réseau terroriste de militaires néonazis démantelé en Belgique, Le Monde, September 8, 2006 (French)
  31. ↑ Lepre, George (1997). Himmler's Bosnian Division: The Waffen-SS Handschar Division 1943-1945. Schiffer Publishing. ISBN 0-7643-0134-9.
  32. ↑ "はげ対策｜食事やシャンプーで薄毛抑制？！｜育毛剤で元気な髪を". bosanski-nacionalisti.com.
  33. ↑ "Osnovan Bosanski pokret nacionalnog ponosa". Radio Slobodna Evropa.
  34. ↑
    • Yeomans, Rory, "Of "Yugoslav Barbarians" and Croatian Gentlemen Scholars: Nationalist Ideology and Racial Anthropology in Interwar Yugoslavia", in Turda, Marius and Paul Weindling, eds., "Blood And Homeland": Eugenics And Racial Nationalism in Central And Southeast Europe, 1900–1940 Central European University Press, 2006)
    • Ognyanova, Irina. "Nationalism and National Policy in Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945)" (PDF). Usna.edu.
    • Jonassohn, Kurt and Karin Solveig Björnson, Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations (Transaction Publishers 1998), p. 279
  35. ↑ "Headquarters Counter Intelligence Corps Allied Forces Headquarters APO 512, 30 January 1947: Present Whereabouts and Past Background of Ante Pavelic, Croat Quisling". Jasenovac-info.com.
  36. ↑ "The historical link between the Ustasha genocide and the Croato-Serb civil war: 1991‐1995" (PDF).
  37. ↑ "War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity". Christusrex.org. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  38. ↑ "Croatia's Willingness To Tolerate Fascist Legacy Worries Many". Iwpr.net. 1999-09-08. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  39. ↑ "SLOBODNA DALMACIJA, ČETVRTAK 21. prosinca 2000. – novosti". Arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  40. 1 2 "Europe | Croatia erases 'fascist' tributes". BBC News. 2004-08-27. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  41. ↑ "Nacional, Monument to Francetic in Slunj". Ex-yupress.com. 2000-06-15. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  42. ↑ Archived January 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  43. ↑ "71 28.6.2006 Zakon o izmjenama i dopunama Kaznenog zakona". Nn.hr. 2006-06-28. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  44. ↑ "Zbog srpskih tablica vandali Mađarima uništili kuću - Vijesti.net". Index.hr. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  45. ↑ http://www.spc.org.yu/Vesti-2004/04/28-4-04-e01.html#usta
  46. ↑ Archived January 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  47. ↑ Mesiću, Zuroff. "Gnušamo se ustaških simbola na Thompsonovu koncertu" (in Croatian). Jutarnji.hr.
  48. ↑ "Margelov institut traži opoziv ministra Kirina zbog Thompsonovog koncerta" (in Croatian). jutarnji.hr.
  49. ↑ "Nazi hunters slam singer’s concert". Suntimes.co.za. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  50. ↑ Lefkovits, Etgar. "Nazi hunter raps 'fascist' Croatian rock concert". Jpost.com. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  51. ↑ "Jews slam Croatia's failure to condemn 'Nazi' concert". Ejpress.org. 2007-06-19. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  52. ↑ "Wiesenthal Center Welcomes Opening of Investigation by Austrian Authorities of the Display of Fascist Ustasha Symbols at Recent Bleiburg Gathering". Operationlastchance.org.
  53. ↑ "Austrija pokrenula istragu o ustaskim obiljezjima u Bleiburgu" (in Croatian). Jutarnji.hr/.
  54. ↑ UCSJ: Union of Councils for Jews in the Former Soviet Union, 26 April 2006, "Estonian Police Criticized for Reaction to Antisemitic Incident" at the Wayback Machine (archived October 4, 2011) - Retrieved 6 June 2009.
  55. ↑ "Violence Based on Racism and Xenophobia: 2008 Hate Crime Survey" at the Wayback Machine (archived November 11, 2009). Human Rights First. 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
  56. ↑ Jamestown Foundation 26 January 2007: Moscow stung by Estonian ban on totalitarianism's symbols by Vladimir Socor
  57. ↑ "Report Submitted by the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, Doudou Diene, on His Mission to Estonia" at the Wayback Machine (archived July 20, 2011). 25–28 September 2008. Universal Human Rights Index. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
  58. ↑ Henley, Jon (2005-02-03). "France says it will outlaw all neo-Nazi groups". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  59. ↑ Stratégies et pratiques du mouvement nationaliste-révolutionnaire français : départs, desseins et destin d'Unité Radicale (1989–2002), Le Banquet, n°19, 2004 (French)
  60. ↑ "Neo-Nazism". Jewish Virtual Library.
  61. ↑ "Antisemitism summary overview of the situation in the European Union 2001–2011" (PDF). Fra.europa.eu. 2012-06-01.
  62. ↑ Evans, Richard J. (2008), The Third Reich at War (internal link) (also at Google Books preview), Penguin Books, pp. 747–748, ISBN 978-0-14-311671-4
  63. ↑ "About Simon Wiesenthal". Simon Wiesenthal Center. 2013. Section 11. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
  64. ↑ Hartmann, Ralph (2010). "Der Alibiprozeß". Den Aufsatz kommentieren (in German). Ossietzky 9/2010. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
  65. ↑ Rückerl, Adalbert (1972), NS-Prozesse, Karlsruhe, Germany: Verlag C F Muller, p. 132, retrieved 8 September 2013, Adalbert Rückerl, head of the Central Bureau for the Prosecution of National Socialist Crimes observed that because of the 1968 Dreher's amendment (§ 50 StGB), 90% of all Nazi war criminals in Germany enjoyed total immunity from prosecution.
  66. 1 2 3 "Hands Off Germany’s Neo-Nazi Party". The New York Times. December 18, 2012. Retrieved April 21, 2013.
  67. ↑ John C. Torpey (1995). Intellectuals, Socialism, and Dissent: The East German Opposition and Its Legacy. U of Minnesota Press. pp. 83–84. ISBN 0816625670. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
  68. ↑ Verfassungsschutzbericht 2012. Federal Ministry of the Interior.
  69. ↑ Takis, Michas. "Unholy Alliance". Texas A&M University Press: Eastern European Studies (College Station, Tex.). p. 22.
  70. ↑ 16/07/2005 article in Eleftherotypia. (Greek)
  71. ↑ "Greek Neo-Nazi Golden Dawn Party Blasts Holocaust Remembrance as 'Unacceptable'". The Jewish Daily Forward. February 18, 2014. Retrieved December 15, 2014.
  72. ↑ Whelan, Brian (October 1, 2013). "Are Greek Neo-Nazis Fighting for Assad in Syria?". Vice News. Retrieved December 6, 2014.
  73. ↑ Stephen Roth Institute: Antisemitism And Racism. Tau.ac.il. Retrieved on 2012-06-01.
  74. ↑ "Antisemitic graffiti at Jewish school". The Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism. 2011. Retrieved 2013-09-04.
  75. ↑ PAP (2008-06-21), Faszystowskie gesty w Myślenicach. Dziennik.pl Kraj. Retrieved January 25, 2013.
  76. ↑ Markéta Smrčková. "Comparison of Radical Right-Wing Parties in Bulgaria and Romania". Central European Political Studies Review. Retrieved 2016-02-26.
  77. ↑ Valentin Malaescu. "Noua Dreaptă, maximă aroganţă: capitala României, la Sfântu Gheorghe" [New Right's ultimate arrogance: Romanian Capital at Saint George] (in Romanian). Ziua de Cluj. Retrieved 2016-02-26.
  78. ↑ "Propunere pentru interzicerea manifestărilor homosexualilor respinsă de Senat" [Proposal for banning homosexual manifestations, rejected by the Senate] (in Romanian). Adevărul. Archived from the original on 2008-02-12. Retrieved 2016-02-29.
  79. ↑ Vlad Odobescu. "Romania’s Turkey-funded mosque sparks anti-Muslim backlash, terror fears". The Washington Times. Retrieved 2016-02-26.
  80. ↑ Luiza Ilie. "Romanian prosecutors arrest suspect for attempted blast". Reuters. Retrieved 2016-02-26.
  81. ↑ 4 mei 2008. "Horrific Documentary on Russian Neo-Nazis part 1". YouTube. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  82. ↑ http://www.vice.com/gr/read/meet-russias-gay-aryan-skinheads-finally-bringing-homosexuality-to-the-neo-nazi-world
  83. 1 2 William W. Hagen (2012). "German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation". Cambridge University Press. p. 313. ISBN 0-521-19190-4
  84. ↑ "The Soviet-German War 1941 - 1945". BBC - History.
  85. ↑ "Violence 'in the Name of the Nation'." ABC News. October 11, 2007.
  86. ↑ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 189
  87. ↑ "Russian held over 'deaths' video". BBC News. 2007-08-15. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  88. ↑ Luke Harding (2007-08-16). "Student arrested over Russian neo-Nazi 'execution' video". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
  89. ↑ Embassy: Neo-Nazi leader received Italian visa
  90. ↑ BBC News - Serbian police arrest neo-Nazis
  91. ↑ "Nacionalni stroj" pred sudom, BBC Serbian.com, January 9, 2006
  92. ↑ Laqueur, Walter, Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 120
  93. ↑ 2006 report on domestic security
  94. ↑ Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005p. 674
  95. ↑ Annual of Power and Conflict, by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148
  96. ↑ The Nature of Fascism, by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171
  97. ↑ Political Parties and Terrorist Groups, by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45
  98. ↑ The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People, by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260
  99. ↑ "The Consortium". consortiumnews.com.
  100. ↑ "Crime of the Century". weeklystandard.com.
  101. ↑ Avcı, Gamze (September 2011). "The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy". South European Society and Politics, special issue: Part II. Turkey and the European Union: Accession and Reform (Taylor and Francis) 16 (3): 435–447. doi:10.1080/13608746.2011.598359. Pdf.
  102. ↑ Çınar, Alev; Burak Arıkan (2002). "The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?". In Barry Rubin & Metin Heper. Political Parties in Turkey. London: Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 0714652741.
  103. ↑ Huggler, Justin (20 April 1999). "Turkish far right on the rise". The Independent. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
  104. ↑ Celep, Ödül (2010). "Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"". Insight Turkey 12 (2): 125–142.
  105. ↑ Arıkan, E. Burak (July 2002). "Turkish ultra–nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party". Nations and Nationalism (Association for the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism) 8 (3): 357–375. doi:10.1111/1469-8219.00055.
  106. ↑ Butler, Daren (21 May 2011). "Pre-election resignations rock Turkish far right". Reuters. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
  107. ↑ "Turkish Nazi Party". turknazipartisi.com. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
  108. ↑ "National Socialist Party of Turkey". nasyonalsosyalistturkiyepartisi.blogspot.com.tr. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
  109. ↑ "Nazi Party Established in Turkey". sabah.com.tr. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
  110. ↑ "They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.". hurriyet.com.tr. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
  111. ↑ "Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey". caucasusforum.org. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
  112. ↑ "Svoboda Fuels Ukraine’s Growing Anti-Semitism". Algemeiner Journal. 24 May 2013.
  113. ↑ Ivan Katchanovski interview with Reuters Concerning Svoboda, the OUN-B, and other Far Right Organizations in Ukraine, Academia.edu (March 4, 2014)
  114. ↑ Motyl, Alexander J. (21 March 2014). "'Experts' on Ukraine". World Affairs Journal.
  115. ↑ Miller, Christopher (17 January 2014). "Svoboda’s rise inspires some, frightens many others". Kyiv Post. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
  116. 1 2 3 4 5 Rudling, Per Anders (2013). "12:The Return of the Ukrainian Far Right The Case of VO Svoboda". In Ruth Wodak, John E. Richardson, Michelle Lazar. Analysing Fascist Discourse European Fascism in Talk and Text. New York: Routledge. pp. 228–255. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  117. ↑ "Ukraine's revolution and the far right". BBC News. 7 March 2014.
  118. ↑ Office of the Spokesperson (March 5, 2014). "President Putin's Fiction: 10 False Claims About Ukraine". Fact sheet. Washington, DC: U.S Department of State. Retrieved 11 March 2014.
  119. ↑ "Who are the protesters in Ukraine?". The Washington Post. February 12, 2014.
  120. ↑ Parubiy says anti-terrorist operation will continue as separatists in Luhansk, Donetsk reject Putin’s call to postpone referendum, Kyiv Post (8 May 2014)
  121. 1 2 "Ukraine conflict: 'White power' warrior from Sweden". BBC News. 16 July 2014.
  122. 1 2 "Ukraine crisis: the neo-Nazi brigade fighting pro-Russian separatists". The Daily Telegraph. 11 August 2014.
  123. ↑ "Azov fighters are Ukraine's greatest weapon and may be its greatest threat". The Guardian. 10 September 2014.
  124. ↑ "German TV Shows Nazi Symbols on Helmets of Ukraine Soldiers". NBC News.
  125. 1 2 "Ukraine's Neo-Nazis Won't Get U.S. Money". Bloomberg. 12 June 2015.
  126. ↑ "Deputy Chairman of Ukraine's parliament in Washington to present list of weapons Ukraine needs". Ukraine Today. 25 February 2015.
  127. ↑ "How the far-right took top posts in Ukraine's power vacuum". Channel 4. 5 March 2014.
  128. 1 2 "Israeli 'neo-Nazi gang' arrested". BBC. 9 September 2007.
  129. 1 2 3 Martin Asser (10 September 2007). "Israeli anger over 'Nazi' group". BBC.
  130. ↑ "Middle East | Israeli neo-Nazi suspects charged". BBC News. 2007-09-11. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
  131. ↑ "Israel's Unbelievable Neo-Nazis". Journeyman Pictures. 8 December 2008.
  132. 1 2 Sheilds, Kirril (2008-10-04). "The Naivety of Mongolia's Nazis". UB Post. Archived from the original on 2011-05-12. Retrieved 2010-08-08.
  133. ↑ Branigan, Tania (2010-08-02). "Mongolian neo-Nazis: Anti-Chinese sentiment fuelds rise of ultra-nationalism". Ulan Bator: The Guardian. Retrieved 2010-08-08.
  134. ↑ "Taiwan political activists admiring Hitler draw Jewish protests" Haaretz (Reuters, the Associated Press). 14 March 2007. Accessed Friday 23 October 2015.
  135. ↑ (Portuguese) To the shadow of the swastika: intolerance still ignites groups of young radicals who despise history, deny their own miscegenated race and threaten minorities
  136. ↑ "The Growth of Neo Nazi Movement in Brazil". InstaBlogs - Global Community Viewpoint and Opinion.
  137. ↑ Liphshiz, Cnaan (2009-05-24). "Brazil thwarts neo-Nazi bomb plot". Haaretz.com. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
  138. ↑ "Brazil: Lethal infighting among neo-Nazis leads to Police raids, exposing megalomaniacal plans for "Neuland"". Fighthatred.com. 2010-03-22. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
  139. 1 2 "neo-Nazis arrested over gay pride bombing in São Paulo". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
  140. 1 2 "The Skinhead International: Brazil". nizkor.org.
  141. ↑ Brazil sets anti-neo-Nazi commission
  142. ↑ "Grêmio neo-Nazi fans arrested for attempted murder after football match". Bigsoccer.com. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
  143. ↑ (Portuguese) Neo-Nazis in São Paulo: Blacks and Northeasterners, we will kill you!
  144. ↑ "Homophobia is not just a neo-Nazi problem in Latin America". Americasouthandnorth.wordpress.com. 2012-04-03. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
  145. ↑ Kristian Jebsen (2012-04-08). "Brazil's surge in violence against gays is just getting worse". Thedailybeast.com. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
  146. ↑ (Portuguese) Brazil: homophobia, religion and politics
  147. ↑ (Portuguese) Shame of São Paulo is killing me
  148. ↑ (Portuguese) Understanding the Brazilian chamber's draft law 122/2006 - NO to homophobia
  149. ↑ "Holocaust Educational Resource". nizkor.org.
  150. ↑ Berlet, Chip and Stanislav Vysotsky. "Overview of U.S. White Supremacist Groups." Journal of Political and Military Sociology 34, no. 1 (2006): 11-48.
  151. 1 2 3 Burstow, Bonnie. "Surviving and thriving by becoming more ‘groupuscular’: the case of the Heritage Front." Patterns of Prejudice 37, no. 4 (2003): 415-428.
  152. ↑ Hamm, Mark S. American Skinheads: The Criminology and Control of Hate Crime. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1993.
  153. 1 2 3 4 5 Etchepare, Jaime Antonio; Stewart; Hamish I., Nazism in Chile: A Particular Type of Fascism in South America. Journal of Contemporary History (1995).
  154. 1 2 Palacios, Nicolás, Raza Chilena (Editorial Chilena, 1918), pp. 35—36.
  155. ↑ Palacios, Nicolás, Raza Chilena (Editorial Chilena, 1918), p. 37.
  156. ↑ Palacios, Nicolás, Raza Chilena(Editorial Chilena, 1918), p. 41.
  157. ↑ "nacion.com / Nacionales". Wvw.nacion.com. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
  158. ↑ "World Union of National Socialists Membership Directory : W.U.N.S". Nationalsocialist.net. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
  159. ↑ "Fuerza Pública investiga fotos de policía en Facebook - SUCESOS - La Nación". Nacion.com. 2012-04-16. Archived from the original on 2012-07-02. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
  160. ↑ "Neo-Nazi Father Is Killed; Son, 10, Steeped in Beliefs, Is Accused". The New York Times. May 10, 2011.
  161. ↑ "The National Socialist Movement". The Anti-Defamation League.
  162. ↑ Kaplan, Jeffrey, Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right (Rowman Altamira, 2000), pp. 1–3.
  163. ↑ Extremism in America: Institute for Historical Review, Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved February 28, 2007.
  164. ↑ "American Swastika: Inside the White Power Movement's Hidden Spaces of Hate" By Pete Simi, Robert Futrell
  165. ↑ Michael, George, The Enemy of My Enemy: The Alarming Convergence of Militant Islam and the Extreme Right (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006)

Bibliography

Primary sources

Academic surveys

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neo-Nazism.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Tuesday, May 03, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.