Religion in Europe

Religion in Europe has been a major influence on today's society art, culture, philosophy and law. The largest religion in Europe for at least a millennium and a half has been Christianity. Three countries in Southeastern Europe have Muslim majorities. Ancient European religions included veneration for deities such as Zeus. Modern revival movements of these religions include Heathenism, Rodnovery, Romuva, Druidry, Wicca, and others. Smaller religions include Indian religions, Judaism, and some East Asian religions, which are found in their largest groups in Britain, France, and Kalmykia.

History

Little is known about the prehistoric religion of Neolithic Europe. Bronze and Iron Age religion in Europe as elsewhere was predominantly polytheistic (Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion, Basque mythology, Finnish paganism, Celtic polytheism, Germanic paganism, etc.). The Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity in AD 380. During the Early Middle Ages, most of Europe underwent Christianization, a process essentially complete with the Christianization of Scandinavia in the High Middle Ages. The emergence of the notion of "Europe" or "Western World" is intimately connected with the idea of "Christendom", especially since Christianity in the Middle East was marginalized by the rise of Islam from the 8th century, a constellation that led to the Crusades, which although unsuccessful militarily were an important step in the emergence of a religious identity of Europe. At all times, traditions of folk religion existed largely independent from official denomination or dogmatic theology.

The Great Schism of the 11th century and Reformation of the 16th century were to tear apart Christendom into hostile factions, and following the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, atheism and agnosticism have spread across Europe. 19th-century Orientalism contributed to a certain popularity of Buddhism, and the 20th century brought increasing syncretism, New Age, and various new religious movements divorcing spirituality from inherited traditions for many Europeans. The latest history brought increased secularisation, and religious pluralism.[2]

Religiosity

European countries have experienced a decline in church membership and church attendance.[3][4] A relevant example of ongoing trend is Sweden where the church of Sweden, previously the state-church until 2000, claimed to have 82.9% of the Swedish population as its flock in 2000. Surveys showed this had dropped to 72.9% by 2008[5] and 64.6% by 2014.[6] However, in the 2005 eurobarometer poll just 23%[7] and in the 2010 eurobarometer poll just 18%[1] of the Swedish population said they believed in a personal God.

Gallup poll 2007–2008

Lack of Importance of Religion in Europe by Gallup poll (2007–2008)
Country Percentage
 Estonia
  
 84%
 Sweden
  
 83%
 Denmark
  
 80%
 Norway
  
 78%
 Azerbaijan
  
 74%
 Czech Republic
  
 74%
 France
  
 73%
 United Kingdom
  
 71%
 Finland
  
 69%
 Netherlands
  
 66%
 Belarus
  
 65%
 Russia
  
 63%
 Albania
  
 63%
 Bulgaria
  
 62%
 Latvia
  
 62%
 Belgium
  
 61%
 Hungary
  
 59%
 Slovenia
  
 59%
 Spain
  
 59%
 Germany
  
 57%
  Switzerland
  
 56%
 Ukraine
  
 54%
 Lithuania
  
 52%
 Slovakia
  
 51%
 Montenegro
  
 48%
 Serbia
  
 45%
 Austria
  
 42%
 Ireland
  
 42%
 Moldova
  
 31%
 Croatia
  
 30%
 Greece
  
 30%
 Armenia
  
 29%
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
  
 29%
 Portugal
  
 27%
 Italy
  
 26%
 Cyprus
  
 24%
 Poland
  
 23%
 Georgia
  
 22%
 Macedonia
  
 20%
 Romania
  
 18%
 Malta
  
 16%
 Turkey
  
 9%

During 2007–2008, a Gallup poll asked in several countries the question "Does religion occupy an important place in your life?" The table on right shows percentage of people who answered "No".[8]

Eurobarometer poll 2010

The Eurobarometer Poll 2010[1] found that, on average, 51% of the citizens of EU member states state that they "believe there is a God", 26% "believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" while 20% "do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force". 3% declined to answer. According to a recent study (Dogan, Mattei, Religious Beliefs in Europe: Factors of Accelerated Decline), 47% of Frenchmen declared themselves as agnostic in 2003. This situation is often called "Post-Christian Europe". A decrease in religiousness and church attendance in Denmark, Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden has been noted, despite a concurrent increase in some countries Greece (2% in 1 year) . The Eurobarometer poll must be taken with caution, however, as there are discrepancies between it and national census results. For example, in the United Kingdom, the 2001 census revealed over 70% of the population regarded themselves as "Christian" with only 15% professing to have "no religion", though the wording of the question has been criticized as "leading" by the British Humanist Association.[9] Romania, one of the most religious countries in Europe, witnessed a threefold increase in the number of atheists between 2002 and 2011, as revealed by the most recent national census.[10]

Eurobarometer Poll 2005 chart results

The following is a list of European countries ranked by religiosity, based on belief in a God, according to the Eurobarometer Poll 2010.[1] The 2010 Eurobarometer Poll asked whether the person believed "there is a God", believed "there is some sort of spirit or life force", or "didn't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force".

Eurobarometer Poll 2010[1]
Country "I believe
there is a God"		 "I believe there is some
sort of spirit or life force"		 "I don't believe there is any sort
of spirit, God or life force"
Malta Malta 94% 4% 2%
Romania Romania 92% 7% 1%
Cyprus Cyprus 88% 8% 3%
Greece Greece 79% 16% 4%
Poland Poland 79% 14% 5%
Italy Italy 74% 20% 6%
Republic of Ireland Ireland 70% 20% 7%
Portugal Portugal 70% 15% 12%
Slovakia Slovakia 63% 23% 13%
Spain Spain 59% 20% 19%
Lithuania Lithuania 47% 37% 12%
Luxembourg Luxembourg 46% 22% 24%
Hungary Hungary 45% 34% 20%
Austria Austria 44% 38% 12%
Germany Germany 44% 25% 27%
Latvia Latvia 38% 48% 11%
United Kingdom United Kingdom 37% 33% 25%
Belgium Belgium 37% 31% 27%
Bulgaria Bulgaria 36% 43% 15%
Finland Finland 33% 42% 22%
Slovenia Slovenia 32% 36% 26%
Denmark Denmark 28% 47% 24%
Netherlands Netherlands 28% 39% 30%
France France 27% 27% 40%
Estonia Estonia 18% 50% 29%
Sweden Sweden 18% 45% 34%
Czech Republic Czech Republic 16% 44% 37%
European Union EU27 51% 26% 20%
Turkey Turkey (EUCU, not EU) 94% 1% 1%
Croatia Croatia (joined EU in 2013) 69% 22% 7%
Switzerland Switzerland (EFTA, not EU) 44% 39% 11%
Iceland Iceland (EFTA, not EU) 31% 49% 18%
Norway Norway (EFTA, not EU) 22% 44% 29%

The decrease in theism is illustrated in the 1981 and 1999 according to the World Values Survey,[11] both for traditionally strongly theist countries (Spain: 86.8%:81.1%; Ireland 94.8%:93.7%) and for traditionally secular countries (Sweden: 51.9%:46.6%; France 61.8%:56.1%; Netherlands 65.3%:58.0%). Some countries nevertheless show increase of theism over the period, Italy 84.1%:87.8%, Denmark 57.8%:62.1%. For a comprehensive study on Europe, see Mattei Dogan's "Religious Beliefs in Europe: Factors of Accelerated Decline" in Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion. Malta and Romania are the most religious countries and Estonia and Czech Republic are the least religious countries in Europe.

Eurobarometer poll 2012

According to new polls about Religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union accounting 72% of EU citizens. Catholics are the largest Christian group in EU, accounting for 48% EU citizens, while Protestants make up 12%, and Eastern Orthodox make up 8%, and other Christians account for 4% of the EU population. Non believer/Agnostic account 16%, Atheist account's 7%, and Muslim 2%.[12]

Maps

Belief "there is a God" per country based on Eurobaromer 2005 poll 
Belief "there is some sort of spirit or life force" per country based on Eurobarometer 2005 poll 
No belief in "any sort of spirit, God or life force" per country based on Eurobarometer 2005 poll 

Abrahamic religions

Baha'i Faith

The first newspaper reference to the religious movement began with coverage of the Báb, whom Bahá'ís consider the founder of a precursor religion, occurred in The Times on 1 November 1845, only a little over a year after the Báb first started his mission.[13] British, Russian, and other diplomats, businessmen, scholars, and world travelers also took note of the precursor Bábí religion[14] most notably in 1865 by Frenchman Arthur de Gobineau who wrote the first and most influential account. In April 1890 Edward G. Browne of Cambridge University met Bahá'u'lláh and left the only detailed description by a Westerner.[15]

Starting in the 1890s Europeans began to convert to the religion. In 1910 Bahá'u'lláh's son and appointed successor, `Abdu'l-Bahá embarked on a three-year journey to including Europe and North America[16] and then wrote a series of letters that were compiled together in the book titled Tablets of the Divine Plan which included mention of the need to spread the religion in Europe following the war.[17]

A 1925 list of "leading local Bahá'í Centres" of Europe listed organized communities of many countries - the largest being in Germany.[18] However the religion was soon banned in a couple countries: in 1937 Heinrich Himmler disbanded the Bahá'í Faith's institutions in Germany because of its 'international and pacifist tendencies'[19] and in Russia in 1938 "monstrous accusations" against Bahá'ís and a Soviet government policy of oppression of religion resulted in Bahá'í communities in 38 cities across Soviet territories ceasing to exist.[20] However the religion recovered in both countries. The religion has generally spread such that in recent years the Association of Religion Data Archives estimated the Bahá'ís in European countries to number in hundreds to tens of thousands.[21]

Christianity

View of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the largest European Roman Catholic Church
Cathedral of Saint Sava in Serbia is the largest Orthodox church in the world
The Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia is one of the largest Orthodox cathedrals
The St John's Church, Bergen is a Lutheran church in Norway
Calvinist Temple Saint-Étienne (Protestant St. Stephen's Church) in France

The majority of Europeans describe themselves as Christians, divided into a large number of denominations.[22] Christian denominations are usually classed in three categories: Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism (a diverse group including Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism as well as numerous minor denominations, including Baptists, Methodism, Evangelicalism, Pentecostalism, etc.).

Christianity, more specifically the Catholic Church, which played an important part in the shaping of Western civilization since at least the 4th century.[23][24]

European culture, throughout most of its recent history, has been heavily influenced by Christian belief and has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture.[25] The Christian culture was one of the more dominant forces to influence western civilization, concerning the course of philosophy, art, music, science, social structure and architecture.[25][26] The Civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare,[27] founding hospitals,[28] economics (as the Protestant work ethic),[29][30] politics[31] architecture,[32] literature[33] and family life.[34]

Christianity is still the largest religion in Europe according to a 2011 survey, 76.2% of Europeans considered themselves Christians at that time.[35][36] According to a 2012 study about Religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union (account 72% of EU population), Catholics were the largest Christian group in EU, and accounted for 48% of the EU population, While Protestants made up 12%, and Eastern Orthodoxs made up 8%, and other Christians 4%.[37]

Christian Denominations

There are numerous minor Protestant movements, including various Evangelical congregations.

Islam

Further information: Islam in Europe
Birmingham Central Mosque, the first mosque in the United Kingdom to use loudspeakers to broadcast the adhan.[39]

Islam came to parts of European islands and coasts on the Mediterranean during the 8th-century Muslim conquests. In the Iberian Peninsula and parts of southern France, various Muslim states existed before the Reconquista; Islam spread in southern Italy briefly through the Emirate of Sicily and Emirate of Bari. During the Ottoman expansion, Islam was spread from Turkey into the Balkans and even part of central Europe. Muslims have also been historically present in Ukraine (Crimea and vicinity, with the Crimean Tatars), as well as modern-day Russia, beginning with Volga Bulgaria in the 10th century and the conversion of the Golden Horde to Islam. In recent years, Muslims have migrated to Europe as residents and temporary workers.

According to the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%).[40] excluding Turkey. While the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%).[41]

Muslims make up 99% of the population in Northern Cyprus,[42] over 98% in Turkey,[43] 90% in Kosovo, 40% in Bosnia and Herzegovina,[44] 56% in Albania,[45][46] 33% in Macedonia,[47] 29% in Montenegro,[48] between 10 and 15% in Russia,[49] 7 -9% in France,[50][51][52] 8% in Bulgaria,[53] 6% in the Netherlands, 5% in Denmark, just over 4% in Switzerland and Austria, between 3 and 4% in Greece and almost 5% in the United Kingdom and Germany.[54][55][56]

Judaism

The Jubilee Synagogue in Prague, Czech Republic

The Jews were dispersed within the Roman Empire from the 2nd century. At one time Judaism was practiced widely throughout the European continent; throughout the Middle Ages, Jews were accused of ritual murder and faced pogroms and legal discrimination. The Holocaust perpetrated by Nazi Germany decimated Jewish population, and today, France is the home of largest Jewish community in Europe with 1% of the total population (between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews).[57][58] Other European countries with notable Jewish populations include Germany (119,000), the United Kingdom (291,000 Jewish),[58] and Russia (194,000) which the home for the Eastern Europe's largest Jewish community.[58]

Deism

Main article: Deism

During the Enlightenment, Deism became influential especially in France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Biblical concepts were challenged by concepts such as a heliocentric universe and other scientific challenges to the Bible.[59] Notable early deists include Erasmus, Voltaire, Kant and Spinoza.[60]

Irreligion

Further information: Secularism, Irreligion and Postchristianity

The trend towards secularism during the 20th century has a number of reasons, depending on the individual country:

The trend towards secularism has been less pronounced in the traditionally Catholic countries of Mediterranean Europe. Greece as the only traditionally Eastern Orthodox country in Europe which has not been part of the communist Eastern Bloc also retains a very high religiosity, with in excess of 95% of Greeks adhering to the Greek Orthodox Church.

According to Pew Research Center survey in 2012 religiously unaffiliated (include agnostic and atheist) make up about 18.2% of Europeans population.[67] According to the same survey religiously unaffiliated make up a majority of the population only in two European countries: Czech Republic (75%) and Estonia (60%).[67]

Atheism and Agnosticism

Main articles: Atheism and Agnosticism

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, atheism or agnosticism has increased, with falling church attendance and membership in various European countries.[68] The 2010 eurobarometer poll found that on total average, of the EU27 population, 51% "believe in a God", 26% believe in "some sort of spirit or life force" and 20% had neither of these forms of belief.[1] Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with strict upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education and those leaning towards right-wing politics.[63]:10–11 Results were varied widely between different countries, on the one end 94% of Maltese respondents stating that they believe in a God and on the other end only 16% of the people of Czech Republic stating the same.[1]

According to a poll measuring religious identification in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer, 7% of EU citizens identify as atheists.[12]

European indigenous religions

Esetrother community of the Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið (Icelandic Esetroth Fellowship) preparing for a Þingblót at Þingvellir.
An Odinist-rite wedding in Spain, in 2010, at the Temple of Gaut in Albacete.

Druidry

The religious development of Druidry was largely influenced by Iolo Morganwg.[69] Modern practises aim to imitate the practises of the Celtic peoples of the Iron Age.[70]

Germanic indigenous religion

Main article: Germanic neopaganism

Heathenism or Esetroth (Icelandic: Ásatrú), and the organised form Odinism, are names for the modern folk religion of the Germanic nations.

In the United Kingdom Census 2001, 300 people registered as Heathen in England and Wales.[71] However, many Heathens followed the advice of the Pagan Federation (PF) and simply described themselves as "Pagan", while other Heathens did not specify their religious beliefs.[71] In the 2011 census, 1,958 people self-identified as Heathen in England and Wales. A further 251 described themselves as Reconstructionist and may include some people reconstructing Germanic paganism.[72]

Ásatrúarfélagið (Esetroth Fellowship) was recognized as an official religion by the Icelandic government in 1973. For its first 20 years it was led by farmer and poet Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson. By 2003, it had 777 members,[73] and by 2014, it had 2,382 members, corresponding to 0.8% of Iceland's population.[74] In Iceland, Germanic religion has an impact larger than the number of its adherents.[75]

In Sweden, the Swedish Forn Sed Assembly (Forn Sed, or the archaic Forn Siðr, means "Old Custom") was formed in 1994 and is since 2007 recognized as a religious organization by the Swedish government. In Denmark Forn Siðr was formed in 1999, and was officially recognized in 2003[76] The Norwegian Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost (Esetroth Fellowship Bifrost) was formed in 1996; as of 2011, the fellowship has some 300 members. Foreningen Forn Sed was formed in 1999, and has been recognized by the Norwegian government as a religious organization. In Spain there is the Odinist Community of Spain — Ásatrú.

Official religions

A number of countries in Europe have official religions, including Liechtenstein,[77] Malta,[78] Monaco,[79] the Vatican City (Catholic);[80] Armenia (Apostolic Orthodoxy) ; Denmark,[81] Iceland[82][83] and the United Kingdom (England alone) (Anglican).[84] In Switzerland, some cantons are officially Catholic, others Reformed Protestant. Some Swiss villages even have their religion as well as the village name written on the signs at their entrances.

Georgia has no established church, but the Georgian Orthodox Church enjoys de facto privileged status. Much the same applies in Germany with the Evangelical Church and the Roman Catholic Church, and the Jewish community. In Finland, both the Finnish Orthodox Church and the Lutheran Church are official. England, a part of the United Kingdom, has Anglicanism as its official religion. Scotland, another part of the UK, has Presbyterianism as its national church, but it is no longer "official". In Sweden, the national church used to be Lutheranism, but it is no longer "official" since 2000. Azerbaijan, Czech Republic,[85] France, Ireland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain and Turkey are officially secular.

Indian religions

Jain temple in Antwerp, Belgium

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhism in Europe

Buddhism is thinly spread throughout Europe, and the fastest growing religion in recent years[86][87] with about 3 million adherents.[88][89] In Kalmykia, Tibetan Buddhism is prevalent.[90]

Hinduism

Mandir in Gibraltar.

Hinduism mainly among Indian immigrants. Growing rapidly in recent years, notably in the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands.[91][92] In 1998, there were an estimated 1.4 million Hindu adherents in Europe.[93]

Jainism

Jainism, small membership rolls, mainly among Indian immigrants in Belgium and the United Kingdom, as well as several converts from western and northern Europe.[94][95]

Sikhism

Sikhism has nearly 1 million adherents in Europe. Most of the community live in United Kingdom (750,000) and Italy (70,000).[96][97] Around 10,000 in Belgium and France.[98] Netherlands and Germany have a Sikh population of 12,000.[99][100] All other countries have 5,000 or fewer Sikhs.

Other religions

Other religions represented in Europe include:

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Special Eurobarometer, biotechnology, page 204" (PDF). Fieldwork: Jan-Feb 2010.
  2. ↑ Hans Knippenberg (2005). The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. pp. 7–9. ISBN 9-055-89248-3.
  3. ↑ Ronan McCrea (17 June 2013). "Ronan McCrea – Is migration making Europe more secular?". Aeon Magazine. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  4. ↑ Church attendance faces decline almost everywhere retrieved 3 July 2011
  5. ↑ "Svenska kyrkans medlemsutveckling år 1972-2008" [Swedish church's membership development in the years 1972-2008]. svenskakyrkan.se (in Swedish). Archived from the original (XLS) on 13 August 2010.
  6. ↑ Svenska kyrkan i siffror Svenska kyrkan
  7. ↑ "Special Eurobarometer: Social values, Science and Technology" (PDF). European Commission Public Opinion. June 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 May 2006.
  8. ↑ "Gallup in depth: Religion". Gallup.com. 2015. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  9. ↑ "The Census Campaign 2011". British Humanist Association. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  10. ↑ Cristina Lica (4 December 2012). "Tot mai mulţi români "sţau lepadat" de Dumnezeu. Harta ateilor din România" [More and more Romanians "have been rejected" by God. Mapping atheists in Romania] (in Romanian). evz.ro. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  11. ↑ "Religion and morale: Believe in God". World Values Survey. Retrieved 25 July 2007.
  12. 1 2 "Discrimination in the EU in 2012" (PDF), Special Eurobarometer, 383 (European Union: European Commission), 2012, p. 233, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-12-02, retrieved 14 August 2013 The question asked was "Do you consider yourself to be...?" With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Atheist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given for Other (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold.
  13. ↑ Bahá'í Information Office (United Kingdom) (1989). "First Public Mentions of the Bahá'í Faith". Archived from the original on 26 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-18.
  14. ↑ Momen, Moojan (1981), The Babi and Baha'i Religions, 1844-1944: Some Contemporary Western Accounts, Oxford, England: George Ronald, ISBN 0-85398-102-7
  15. ↑ U.K. Bahá'í Heritage Site. "The Bahá'í Faith in the United Kingdom -A Brief History". Archived from the original on 26 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-18.
  16. ↑ Alessandro Bausani; Dennis MacEoin (1989). Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 2008-02-26.
  17. ↑ Abbas, 'Abdu'l-Bahá; Mirza Ahmad Sohrab; trans. and comments (April 1919). Tablets, Instructions and Words of Explanation.
  18. ↑ Hassall, Graham; Fazel, Seena. "100 Years of the Bahá'í Faith in Europe". Bahá’í Studies Review 1998 (8). pp. 35–44.
  19. ↑ Kolarz, Walter (1962). Religion in the Soviet Union. Armenian Research Center collection. St. Martin's Press. pp. 470–473  – via Questia (subscription required) .
  20. ↑ "Notes on the Bábí and Bahá'í Religions in Russia and its Territories", by Graham Hassall, Journal of Bahá'í Studies, 5.3 (Sept.-Dec. 1993)
  21. ↑ "Most Baha'i Nations (2010)". QuickLists → Compare Nations → Religions. The Association of Religion Data Archives. 2010. Retrieved 26 October 2013.
  22. ↑ "Europe". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  23. ↑ Orlandis, A Short History of the Catholic Church (1993), preface.
  24. ↑ How The Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2014-09-07.
  25. 1 2 Koch, Carl (1994). The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission. Early Middle Ages: St. Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-298-4.
  26. ↑ Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6.
  27. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica Church and social welfare
  28. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica Care for the sick
  29. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica Property, poverty, and the poor,
  30. ↑ Weber, Max (1905). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
  31. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica Church and state
  32. ↑ Sir Banister Fletcher, History of Architecture on the Comparative Method.
  33. ↑ Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the “Rise of the West”: Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–445 (416, table 1)
  34. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica The tendency to spiritualize and individualize marriage
  35. ↑ Global Christianity A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Christian Population Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, p.15
  36. ↑ The Global Religious Landscape A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010 Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, p.18
  37. ↑ "Discrimination in the EU in 2012" (PDF), Special Eurobarometer, 383 (European Union: European Commission), 2012, p. 233, retrieved 14 August 2013
  38. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 "Adherents.com". Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  39. ↑ W. A. R. Shadid (1995). Religious Freedom and the Position of Islam in Western Europe. Peters Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 90-390-0065-4.
  40. ↑ Pew Forum, The Future of the Global Muslim Population, January 2011, , ,
  41. ↑ "In Europa leben gegenwärtig knapp 53 Millionen Muslime" [Almost 53 million Muslims live in Europe at present] (in German). islam.de. 8 May 2007. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  42. ↑ LAU General Information on North Cyprus
  43. ↑ "Religion, Secularism and the Veil in daily life" (PDF). Milliyet News. KONDA Research and Consultancy. 8 September 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 November 2010.
  44. ↑ "The World Factbook". Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  45. ↑ "The World Factbook". Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  46. ↑ Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009), Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population (PDF), Pew Research Center, archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-10-10, retrieved 2009-10-08
  47. ↑ "Macedonia: People and Society". CIA World Factbook. 2002. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  48. ↑ "Popis stanovništva, domaćinstava i stanova u Crnoj Gori 2011. godine" [Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2011] (PDF) (Press release) (in Serbo-Croatian and English). Statistical office, Montenegro. 12 July 2011. Retrieved 2013-02-24.
  49. ↑ "The World Factbook". Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  50. ↑ Minister of the Interior (France) (28 June 2010). "Entre 5 et 6 Millions de Musulmans en France" (in French). Le Point.
  51. ↑ Minister of the Interior (France), Article du Figaro, 28 June 2010
  52. ↑ Minister of the Interior (France), Article de Libération
  53. ↑ "Bulgaria: People and Society". CIA World Factbook. 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  54. ↑ "Religion in England and Wales 2011". Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  55. ↑ Muslims in Europe: Country guide, BBC News, 23 December 2005, accessed 3 May 2007
  56. ↑ Number of Muslims in Germany, accessed 13 October 2014
  57. ↑ "The World Factbook". Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  58. 1 2 3 DellaPergola, Sergio; Dashefsky, Arnold; Sheskin, Ira, eds. (2 November 2012). "World Jewish Population, 2012" (PDF). Current Jewish Population Reports. Storrs, Connecticut: North American Jewish Data Bank. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 April 2013. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
  59. ↑ Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment Ellen Judy Wilson, Peter Hanns Reill - 2004
  60. ↑ The Founders' Facade R. L. Worthy - 2004
  61. ↑ "Eurobarometer 73.1: Biotechnology Report 2010" (PDF). European Commission Public Opinion. October 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2010.
  62. ↑ Gallagher, Amelia (1997). "The Albanian atheist state, 1967–1991".
  63. 1 2 "Eurobarometer 225: Social values, Science & Technology" (PDF). Eurostat. 2005. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  64. ↑ "WHY EASTERN GERMANY IS THE MOST GODLESS PLACE ON EARTH". Die Welt. 2012. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
  65. ↑ "East Germany the "most atheistic" of any region". Dialog International. 2012. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
  66. ↑ Zuckerman (2005), p. 24.
  67. 1 2 "Religiously Unaffiliated". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 18 December 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  68. ↑ Zuckerman, Phil (2005). "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns" (PDF). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
  69. ↑ Grimoire for the Apprentice Wizard - Page 353, Oberon Zell-Ravenheart - 2004
  70. ↑ Bonewits 2006. pp. 128-140.
  71. 1 2 Blain, Jenny (2005). "Heathenry, the Past, and Sacred Sites in Today's Britain". In Strmiska, Michael F. Modern Paganism in World Cultures. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 181–208. ISBN 978-1851096084. p. 191
  72. ↑ Office for National Statistics, 11 December 2012, 2011 Census, Key Statistics for Local Authorities in England and Wales. Accessed 12 December 2012.
  73. ↑ Strmiska, Michael F.; Sigurvinsson, Baldur A. (2005). "Asatru: Nordic Paganism in Iceland and America". In Strmiska, Michael F. Modern Paganism in World Cultures. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 127–179. ISBN 978-1851096084. p. 168
  74. ↑ "Populations by religious organizations 1998-2013". Reykjavík, Iceland: Statistics Iceland.
  75. ↑ Strmiska, Michael F.; Sigurvinsson, Baldur A. (2005). "Asatru: Nordic Paganism in Iceland and America". In Strmiska, Michael F. Modern Paganism in World Cultures. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 127–179. ISBN 978-1851096084. p. 174
  76. ↑ "Forn Siðr - Forn Siðr". Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  77. ↑ Constitution Religion at the Wayback Machine (archived 26 March 2009) (archived from the original on 2009-03-26).
  78. ↑ "Constitution of Malta, Article 2". legirel.cnrs.fr. 21 September 1964. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  79. ↑ CONSTITUTION DE LA PRINCIPAUTE at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 September 2011) (French): Art. 9., Principaute De Monaco: Ministère d'Etat (archived from the original on 2011-09-27).
  80. ↑ "Vatican City". Catholic-Pages.com. Retrieved 12 August 2013.
  81. ↑ Denmark – Constitution: Section 4 State Church, International Constitutional Law.
  82. ↑ Constitution of the Republic of Iceland: Article 62, Government of Iceland.
  83. ↑ "Statistics Iceland - Statistics » Population » Religious organisations". Statice.is. 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-27.
  84. ↑ "The History of the Church of England". The Archbishops' Council of the Church of England. Retrieved 2006-05-24.
  85. ↑ "Listina základních práv a svobod" [Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms]. Parliament of the Czech Republic (in Czech). 16 December 1992. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  86. ↑ "U.S.Religious Landscape Survey Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic" (PDF). The Pew Forum. February 2008. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  87. ↑ Buddhism fastest growing religion in West. Asian Tribune (2008-04-07). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  88. ↑ "Vipassana Foundation - Buddhists around the world".
  89. ↑ "BuddhaNet - Buddhism in the West".
  90. ↑ Contemporary Buddhist Revival in Kalmykia: Survey of the Present State of Religiosity | AsiaPortal - Infocus. Infocus.asiaportal.info (2012-02-06). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  91. ↑ Curtis, Polly (29 November 2007). "Hindu school is first to make vegetarianism a condition of entry". UK: The Guardian. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
  92. ↑ "Adherents by Location". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
  93. ↑ "Hinduism". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
  94. ↑ Paul Weller (2005). "Jain Origins and Key Organisations in the UK". multifaithcentre.org. Archived from the original on 6 February 2013.
  95. ↑ A Brief Introduction to Jainism | religion | resources. Kwintessential.co.uk. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  96. ↑ UK | Wales | South East Wales | Sikhs celebrate harvest festival. BBC News (2003-05-10). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  97. ↑ NRI Sikhs in Italy. Nriinternet.com (2004-11-15). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  98. ↑
  99. ↑ Sikhs in Nederland - Introduction. Sikhs.nl. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
  100. ↑ Sikhs in Germany Seek Meeting with German Leaders on Turban Issue. Fateh.sikhnet.com (2004-05-20). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Religion in Europe.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Wednesday, May 04, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.