Whitewashing in film

White actor Mickey Rooney wore yellowface to portray a Japanese landlord in Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961)

Whitewashing is the casting practice in the film industry in the United States in which white actors are cast in historically nonwhite character roles. The film industry has a history of frequently casting white actors for roles involving persons of color; the practice is as old as the film industry. Activist Guy Aoki said African Americans "have long felt the full brunt of the 'whitewashing' of roles" and that Asians have experienced it as well.^[1] The inverse of whitewashing is seen as non-traditional casting, where non-white actors fill the roles of historically white characters.

Background

In the early 20th century, white actors caricatured minority characters by wearing blackface or yellowface and exaggerating the perceived behavior of minorities. For example, white actor Warner Oland played the Chinese detective Charlie Chan in Charlie Chan Carries On (1931) and subsequent films. Due to the lack of characters of color in the film industry, these roles were well received at the time by minorities.^[2] Films became more racially integrated by the mid 20th-century, and blackface mostly disappeared from the film industry with the key exception of Othello (1965), in which white actor Laurence Olivier wore blackface as the title character. The practice of yellowface extended into the 1960s, including Mickey Rooney playing a Japanese^[3] landlord in Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961).^[2] Professor David A. Schlossman said of Asian characters in particular, "Many of the Asian roles portrayed by White actors also contributed to the pantheon of racial stereotypes in US national discourse."^[4] At the start of the 21st century, minorities were still under-represented in the film industry at different stages. While historically black roles mostly went to black actors, the practice of whitewashing applied to other minorities.^[2]

The BBC said in 2015, "The practice of casting white actors in non-white roles is still prevalent in Hollywood – despite widespread condemnation and protest." A report in 2013 showed that 94% of film executives were white and that nonwhite people were under-represented as filmmakers and actors. The BBC explored two reasons for the casting practice: institutional racism and producers believing that white actors attract more audiences and maximize profits. Thomas Rothman, the chairman of Sony Pictures said, "I guess there's a certain institutional force and memory that exists out there... I think the industry's improving but I certainly agree with those who say we haven't come far enough fast enough."^[1] Jeffery Mio, author of Multicultural Psychology: Understanding Our Diverse Communities, hypothesizes that the film industry, mostly white, hires people of similar backgrounds. Mio said of the rationale that only the most qualified actors are cast, "That’s the argument that directors and casting directors make, but a lot of times ethnic actors will tell us that when they say we're just choosing the best actor, they mean we're choosing our friends, or people we're used to."^[1] Craig Detweiler, professor of film history at Pepperdine University, said, "There are a shortage [sic] of African American, Asian and Latino stars. For all Hollywood's progressive politics, its casting decisions look remarkably retrograde."^[5] In 2010, TheWrap ascribed the lack of racial diversity to institutional racism and a lack of bankable actors of color and that whitewashing in films like Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time and The Last Airbender aggravated the issue.^[5]

On casting white actors to maximize profits, David White, National Executive Director of the actors' union SAG-AFTRA said black actors like Will Smith, Denzel Washington, and David Oyelowo refuted the casting rationale.^[1] Assistant professor of telecommunications Andrew J. Weaver said, "There is an assumption in Hollywood that whites would avoid movies with majority black casts, or any minority cast for that matter. You see this whitewashing of films – even films that have minority characters written into them are being cast with whites."^[6] Film professor Mitchell W. Block said studios adhered to casting norms as a matter of practicing business to appeal to investors and producers.^[7] Director Ridley Scott said without the casting of big-name actors, his 2014 Biblical epic film Exodus: Gods and Kings would never have been made, saying, "I can't mount a film of this budget... and say that my lead actor is Mohammad so-and-so from such-and-such... I'm just not going to get financed."^[7][8][9] USA Today noted with films like Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), A Mighty Heart (2007), and Pan (2015), "White actors continue to be top of mind for plum roles, despite the under-representation of people of color at the acting, directing and producing levels."^[7]

Media watchdog groups have sought more authentic representations on screen, taking issue with casting decisions such as actor Johnny Depp as a Native American in The Lone Ranger (2013).^[1] With films from the United States showing in more global markets, the groups argue for roles that represent the diversity of audiences, who are seeking more authenticity. SAG-AFTRA's David White demurred on groups' opposition to casting white actors in non-white roles, "The laws insist that one’s race not be part of the qualifications for a job," but he recognized that there was a lack of diversity in roles available.^[1] Law professor John Tehranian said, "Of course, there is nothing inherently wrong with race-blind casting, as long as it works both ways. But in reality, it never has; one rarely sees, for example, an African American, Latino, or Asian actor cast as a white character."^[10]

List of films

Below is a list of films that have been subject to criticism of its casting practice as "whitewashing":

Film	Year	Description
21	2008	The film about card counting features white actors Jim Sturgess, Jacob Pitts, and Kevin Spacey in the lead roles. The film is based on the true story where a group of Asian-American students and their teacher applied card counting to win significantly in gambling.[2][11][12][13][14]
30 Days of Night	2007	In the vampire horror film, white actor Josh Hartnett plays Sheriff Eben Oleson in an Alaskan town. The originating comic book mini-series featured the character as Sheriff Eben Olemaun, who is of Inuit descent.[11][12][13]
Aloha	2015	The romantic comedy-drama features an all-white cast and is set in the state of Hawaii, which is over 70% nonwhite. One of the actors, Emma Stone, portrayed the character Allison Ng; the character is stated as having a father of half Chinese and half Native Hawaiian descent, and a mother of Swedish descent.[15][16][17]
Anna and the King of Siam	1946	In the historical drama film, white actor Rex Harrison plays the Siamese king Mongkut.[18]
Apache	1954	In the Western film, white actor Burt Lancaster stars as an Apache warrior.[11][13][16]
Argo	2012	In the political thriller film based on a true story, white actor Ben Affleck plays Tony Mendez, a CIA technical operations officer who is of half Mexican descent.[11][12][17] Tony Mendez himself said he did not think of himself as Hispanic.[19] In addition, white actress Clea DuVall plays Cora Lijek, who in real life is Japanese.[20]
Batman Begins	2005	In the superhero film featuring Batman, white actor Liam Neeson plays Ra's al Ghul, who is traditionally depicted in Batman comics to be of Arab descent.[21]
Beautiful Mind, AA Beautiful Mind	2001	In the biographical film about John Nash, white actor Jennifer Connelly plays Nash's wife Alicia, who was born in El Salvador.[2][11][12][22]
The Big Wedding	2013	In this comedy film, white actor Ben Barnes plays a Colombian character and wears brownface makeup for the part.[23]
Breakfast at Tiffany's	1961	In the romantic comedy film, white actor Mickey Rooney plays Holly Golightly's Asian landlord.[2][11][13][24][25]
Charlie Chan Carries On	1931	White actor Warner Oland plays Chinese detective Charlie Chan in this film as well as others featuring the character.[2]
Cleopatra	1963	In the historical epic film, white actor Elizabeth Taylor plays Cleopatra, a queen of Greek and Egyptian descent.[2][11][17][26]
Conqueror, TheThe Conqueror	1956	In the epic film, white actor John Wayne plays the title character Genghis Khan of Mongol descent.[2][11][13][24][25]
Doctor Strange	2016	In this superhero film, white actress Tilda Swinton will play the Ancient One, who in the comics is a Tibetan man.[27]
Dragon Seed	1944	In the war drama film, white actor Katharine Hepburn plays the Chinese protagonist Jade.[11][13][28]
Dragonball Evolution	2009	In the film based on the Japanese manga Dragon Ball, white actor Justin Chatwin plays the main character Goku.[11][13]
Drive	2011	In the crime film, white actor Carey Mulligan plays Irene, who is depicted as Latin in the original novel.[11][12]
Edge of Tomorrow	2014	In the science fiction film, white actor Tom Cruise plays William Cage, a whitewashed version of the novel's Japanese protagonist Keiji Kiriya. [28][29] In addition, white actors Bill Paxton and Noah Taylor play characters who were in the novel, respectively, a Brazilian-Japanese man and Native American woman.[30]
Elizabeth, Michael and Marlon	2016	The comedy television film based based on a 2011 Vanity Fair story about Marlon Brando, Elizabeth Taylor and Michael Jackson's road trip to New York City on September 11, 2001 features white actor Joseph Fiennes as Michael Jackson.[31]
Exodus: Gods and Kings	2014	In the Biblical epic film, white actors Christian Bale, Joel Edgerton, Sigourney Weaver, and Aaron Paul play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent.[16][26][32] Director Ridley Scott said about his casting, "I can’t mount a film of this budget, where I have to rely on tax rebates in Spain, and say that my lead actor is Mohammad so-and-so from such-and-such. I'm just not going to get it financed. So the question doesn't even come up."[33]
Fiesta	1947	In the musical drama film, white actor Esther Williams plays the Mexican woman Maria Morales.[13]
Ghost in the Shell	2017	The US live-action adaptation of the Japanese franchise will feature several white actors, including Scarlett Johansson, Pilou Asbæk, and Michael Pitt, in the roles of Japanese characters.[34]
Gods of Egypt	2016	In the fantasy film, the principal cast of the Egyptian characters is mostly portrayed by white actors.[35]
Good Earth, TheThe Good Earth	1937	In the drama film about Chinese farmers, white actors Paul Muni and Luise Rainer play Chinese characters.[11][13][16]
Greatest Story Ever Told, TheThe Greatest Story Ever Told	1965	In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent. White actor Max von Sydow plays Jesus Christ.[32]
House of the Spirits, TheThe House of the Spirits	1993	In the period drama set in Chile, white actors Meryl Streep, Glenn Close, Jeremy Irons, and Winona Ryder play characters of Latin descent.[4]
Hud	1963	In the drama film, white actor Patricia Neal plays Alma, a housekeeper at a ranch, where in the original novel, Horseman, Pass By, the character was a black housekeeper named Halmea. The director said of casting a white actor for the character, "We would have loved to keep her black for the movie. She has moral strength, she's benevolent, she's tough-minded, and she's secure in herself. So we would have loved to say to the world, 'Look, here's a hell of a woman, and she's black,' but in those days you simply couldn't do it, and not because the talent wasn't there—there were at least a half-dozen powerhouse black actresses who could have played that role. But the times weren't ready for it yet, and it was, of course, further complicated by the attempted rape."[36]
Human Stain, TheThe Human Stain	2003	In the drama film, white actor Anthony Hopkins plays Coleman Silk, a former professor who is African-American and has been passing as a white Jewish person.[26][37]
Hunger Games, TheThe Hunger Games	2012	In the science fiction adventure film, white actor Jennifer Lawrence stars as Katniss Everdeen,[11][12][26][37] who author Suzanne Collins described to have the typical look of her district: olive skin, straight black hair, and grey eyes. Readers perceived Katniss and her people to be nonwhite; the film's casting call for Katniss specified a Caucasian appearance.[38] Collins said Katniss as well as Gale "were not particularly intended to be biracial" as readers thought, "It is a time period where hundreds of years have passed from now. There’s been a lot of ethnic mixing."[39] Deidre Anne Evans Garriott, Whitney Elaine Jones, and Julie Elizabeth Tyler said about the casting call, "Calling for a Caucasian actress clearly excludes other capable actresses and privileges whiteness in Hollywood... This casting choice over an actress who may look more like the Katniss Collins describes—and who may or may not self-identify as Caucasian—may challenge traditional ideas of beauty, and how Western society associates beauty with heroism."[40]
Imitation of Life	1959	In the romantic drama film, Hispanic actor Susan Kohner plays Sarah Jane, a mixed ethnicity woman who can pass as white.[13][26]
King and I, TheThe King and I	1956	In the musical film, white actor Yul Brynner plays the Thai king Mongkut.[4][28] Brynner claimed to be part Mongol and Buryat.
King David	1985	In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent. White actor Richard Gere plays the Biblical figure David.[32]
The King of Fighters	2010	In the martial arts action film based on the video game series, white actor Sean Faris stars as the Japanese Kyo Kusanagi.[41]
King of Kings	1961	In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent. White actor Jeffrey Hunter plays Jesus Christ.[32]
Last Airbender, TheThe Last Airbender	2010	In the fantasy adventure film based on the TV series Avatar: The Last Airbender, white actors play characters that are depicted as Asian and Inuit in the TV series. On the other hand, the actors portraying the antagonist Fire Nation characters are mainly Middle Eastern and Indians.[2][11][12][13][25][28]
Last Temptation of Christ, TheThe Last Temptation of Christ	1988	In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures who are of Middle Eastern descent, including white actor Willem Dafoe as Jesus Christ.[32]
Lawrence of Arabia	1962	In the historical epic film, white actor Alec Guinness plays the Arab Prince Faisal.[18]
Lone Ranger, TheThe Lone Ranger	2013	In the Western film, white actor Johnny Depp plays the Comanche sidekick Tonto.[2][12] Depp has stated on several occasions that he has some Cherokee or Comanche ancestry, although Depp's Native American ancestry has never been verified.[42]
Lost Boundaries	1949	In the drama film based on a true story, white actors play members of a family that is partly African-American but passes as white.[43]
Majority of One, AA Majority of One	1961	In the comedy film, white actor Alec Guinness plays a Japanese businessman.[18]
Martian, TheThe Martian	2015	In the science fiction film based on the 2011 novel, white actor Mackenzie Davis plays Mission Control satellite planner Mindy Park, a character of Korean-American descent in the novel.[44] Author Andy Weir said he perceived Mindy Park as Korean but said he did not explicitly write her as Korean.[45]
Mighty Heart, AA Mighty Heart	2007	In the drama film based on the memoir of the same name, white actor Angelina Jolie plays Mariane Pearl, a French-born woman of Afro-Cuban descent.[11][13][14][17][26][37][46]
Noah	2014	The Biblical epic film features an all-white cast.[47] White actor Russell Crowe plays the Biblical figure Noah.[26][32] However, "fittingly for a Biblical story", two of the characters are played by Jewish actors (Jennifer Connelly and Logan Lerman).[48] Screenwriter Ari Handel said, "From the beginning, we were concerned about casting, the issue of race. What we realized is that this story is functioning at the level of myth, and as a mythical story, the race of the individuals doesn’t matter. They’re supposed to be stand-ins for all people... You either try to put everything in there, which just calls attention to it, or you just say, 'Let's make that not a factor, because we’re trying to deal with everyman.'"[49] Handel said the race of Noah's family was cast based on the foremost casting of Russell Crowe and that he avoided casting other races for people outside the family as not to show "racial differences between who lived and who died" and as a result make "a terrible, terrible statement".[50]
Not Without My Daughter	1991	In the drama film, white actor Alfred Molina plays Sayed Bozorg "Moody" Mahmoody, an Iranian physician.[10]
Othello	1965	In the film based on William Shakespeare's tragedy play Othello (c. 1603), white actor Laurence Olivier plays in blackface the character Othello, who is of Moorish descent.[2][11][13][16][17][26][37]
Outsider, TheThe Outsider	1961	In the biographical film, white actor Tony Curtis plays Ira Hayes, a U.S. Marine of Native American descent.[11][13]
Pan	2015	In the fantasy film, white actor Rooney Mara plays Tiger Lily, a character of Native American descent.[2]
Party, TheThe Party	1968	In the comedy film, white actor Peter Sellers plays an Indian actor.[11][25]
Passage to India, AA Passage to India	1984	In the historical drama film, white actor Alec Guinness plays the Indian character Professor Godbole.[18]
Passion of the Christ, TheThe Passion of the Christ	2004	In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures of Middle Eastern descent, including white actor Jim Caviezel playing Jesus Christ.[32]
Pay It Forward	2000	In the drama film based on a true story, white actor Kevin Spacey plays teacher Eugene Simonet. In real life, the teacher is Reuben St. Clair, who is of African American descent.[2][12][37]
Pinky	1949	In the race drama film, white actor Jeanne Crain plays a partly African-American character who can pass as white.[43][46]
Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time	2010	In the fantasy adventure film, white actor Jake Gyllenhaal plays the title character of Persian descent.[2][11][24][25]
Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins	1985	In the action-adventure film, white actor Joel Grey plays a Korean martial arts master who trains Remo Williams.[13]
Scarface	1983	In the crime film, white actor Al Pacino plays Tony Montana, who is of Cuban descent.[51] In fact most of the Cuban-American characters in the film were portrayed by non-Cuban actors.[52]
Sheik, TheThe Sheik	1921	In the romantic drama film, white actor Rudolph Valentino plays the Sheik, a character of Arab descent.[10]
Short Circuit	1986	In the science fiction film, white actor Fisher Stevens plays an Indian character.[13]
Short Circuit 2	1988	In the science fiction film, white actor Fisher Stevens plays an Indian character.[53]
Show Boat	1951	In the romantic drama film, white actor Ava Gardner plays Julie, a character of mixed ethnicity. An actor of mixed ethnicity, Lena Horne, was originally cast to play Julie before the studio required a casting change.[4][43][46]
Social Network, TheThe Social Network	2010	In the drama film, biracial actor Max Minghella plays the Facebook co-founder Divya Narendra, who is of Indian descent.[2][54] Director David Fincher said, "we had read an enormous, probably a hundred, Indian actors who came in to read for Divya and I saw footage of the actual Divya Narendra who I've met now and he's kind of like Warren Beatty. There's nothing, aside from being incredibly tan, there's almost nothing that seems particularly ethnic about him.... and we couldn't find somebody with that sort of smoothness. I looked and I looked and I looked. We went to London, Paris, Montreal, we cast from everywhere and finally in the end I just felt that Max had the most, kind of, I just wanted to make sure that Divya was an equal. He was the most important third wheel in this triumverate."[55] Actor Aziz Ansari commented, "These days, Indian people, real Indian people, pop up way more in film and television, but fake Indians are still around more than you think. I loved 'The Social Network,' but I have a hard time understanding why the Indian-American Harvard student Divya Narendra was played by Max Minghella, a half-Chinese, half-Italian British actor."[53]
Son of the Sheik, TheThe Son of the Sheik	1926	In the adventure drama film, white actor Rudolph Valentino plays the main character, who is of Arab descent.[10]
Spawn	1997	In the superhero film, white actor D.B. Sweeney plays Terry Fitzgerald, who is African-American in the comics.[56]
Star Trek Into Darkness	2013	In the science fiction film, white actor Benedict Cumberbatch plays the villain Khan Noonien Singh, who is of Indian descent. In his previous cinematic and television appearances (Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and "Space Seed"), the character is portrayed by Mexican actor Ricardo Montalbán.[12][57]
Starship Troopers	1997	In the science fiction film, white actor Casper Van Dien plays John Rico. In the original book, the character was Juan Rico of Filipino descent.[13]
Stonewall	2015	The film about the Stonewall riots depicts a white male fictional protagonist, which members of the LGBT community contested as whitewashing that excluded the key involvement of transgender and lesbian women of color. Director Roland Emmerich, himself gay, said, "I didn't make this movie only for gay people, I made it also for straight people. I kind of found out, in the testing process, that actually, for straight people, [Danny] is a very easy in. Danny's very straight-acting. He gets mistreated because of that. [Straight audiences] can feel for him." He said he and screenwriter Jon Robin Baitz consulted historians and veterans and said, "There were only a couple of transgender women in the Stonewall ever. They were like a minority."[58]
Stuck	2007	In the thriller film based on a true story, white actor Mena Suvari plays Brandi Boski, who is based on Chante Jawan Mallardin who is of African American descent.[11][14][26][37]
Taras Bulba	1962	In the Russian historical epic, American actors Tony Curtis and Perry Lopez play Cossacks.
Teahouse of the August Moon, TheThe Teahouse of the August Moon	1956	In the comedy film, white actor Marlon Brando plays the Japanese character Sakini.[4][11][13][24]
Ten Commandments, TheThe Ten Commandments	1956	In the Biblical epic film, white actors play Biblical figures of Middle Eastern descent. White actors Charlton Heston and Yul Brynner play Moses and Ramesses II, respectively.[16]
Thief of Bagdad, TheThe Thief of Bagdad	1924	In the swashbuckler film, white actor Douglas Fairbanks plays the main character of Arab descent.[10] In the 1978 version, the title character was played by Roddy McDowall.
Touch of Evil	1958	In the crime noir, white actor Charlton Heston plays Miguel Vargas, a DEA agent of Mexican descent.[11]
Wanted	2008	In the action film, white actress Angelina Jolie plays Fox, who is African-American in the comics and modeled on actress Halle Berry.[59]
Warm Bodies	2013	In the zombie comedy film, white actor Analeigh Tipton plays Nora, who is depicted in the book as half-Ethiopian.[11][26]
West Side Story	1961	In the romantic musical film, white actor Natalie Wood plays Maria, who is of Puerto Rican descent.[4][11]
Wind and the Lion, TheThe Wind and the Lion	1975	In the historical film, white actor Sean Connery plays Mulai Ahmed er Raisuni, a leader of Berber insurrectionists.[10]
World Trade Center	2006	In the disaster drama film based on the September 11 attacks, white actor William Mapother plays Marine Sergeant Jason Thomas, who in real life is of African American descent.[46][60]
Year of Living Dangerously, TheThe Year of Living Dangerously	1982	In the drama film, white female actor Linda Hunt plays a male Chinese-Australian dwarf.[13]

Notes

• Film adaptations of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, in which Captain Nemo is cast as European rather than as a Hindu Indian prince^[16]

See also

• Colour-blind casting

References

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