Haiti

This article is about the republic. For other uses, see Haiti (disambiguation). "Hayti" and "Ayiti" redirect here. For the island of Haiti, see Hispaniola.

Coordinates: 19°00′N 72°25′W / 19.000°N 72.417°W / 19.000; -72.417

Republic of Haiti
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: 
"Liberté, égalité, fraternité" (French) [1]
"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"
Motto on traditional coat of arms:
"L'union fait la force" (French)
"Union makes strength"
Anthem: La Dessalinienne  (French)
The Dessalines Song
Capital
and largest city
Port-au-Prince
18°32′N 72°20′W / 18.533°N 72.333°W / 18.533; -72.333
Official languages
Ethnic groups 95% Black
5% Mulatto, White[2]
Demonym Haitian
Government Unitary semi-presidential republic
   Acting President Jocelerme Privert
   Acting Prime Minister Enex Jean-Charles
Legislature Parliament
   Upper house Senate
   Lower house Chamber of Deputies
Independence from France
   Declared 1 January 1804 
   Recognized 17 April 1825 
   First Empire 22 September 1804 
   Southern Republic 9 March 1806 
   Northern State 17 October 1806 
   Kingdom 28 March 1811 
   Unification of Hispaniola 9 February 1822 
   Dissolution 27 February 1844 
   Second Empire 26 August 1849 
   Republic 15 January 1859 
   Current constitution 29 March 1987 
Area
   Total 27,750 km2 (140th)
10,714 sq mi
   Water (%) 0.7
Population
   2015 estimate 10,604,000[3] (85th)
   Density 382/km2 (32nd)
989.7/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2016 estimate
   Total US$19.871 billion[4]
   Per capita US$1,849[4]
GDP (nominal) 2016 estimate
   Total US$8.924 billion[4]
   Per capita US$830[4]
Gini (2012)60.8[5]
very high
HDI (2014)Steady 0.483[6]
low · 163th
Currency Haitian gourde (G) (HTG)
Time zone EST (UTC−5)
   Summer (DST) EDT (UTC−4)
Drives on the right
Calling code +509
ISO 3166 code HT
Internet TLD .ht   .gouv.ht   .edu.ht[7]

Haiti (i/ˈhti/; French: Haïti [a.iti]; Haitian Creole: Ayiti [ajiti]), officially the Republic of Haiti (French: République d'Haïti; Haitian Creole: Repiblik Ayiti),[8] is a sovereign state in the Western Hemisphere (North America).[9] The country is located on the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island which it shares with the Dominican Republic.[10][11] Haiti is 27,750 square kilometres (10,714 sq mi) in size and has an estimated 10.6 million people,[3] making it the most populous country in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the third-most populous country in the Caribbean as a whole.

Originally inhabited by the indigenous Taíno people, Spain first became aware of the island on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus across the Atlantic. When Columbus initially landed in Haiti, he had thought he had found India or Asia.[12] On Christmas day, Columbus' flagship the Santa Maria, ran aground north of what is now Limonade.[13][14][15][16] As a consequence, Columbus ordered his men to salvage what they could from the ship, and he created the first European settlement in the Americas, naming it La Navidad after the day the ship was destroyed.[2]

The island was named Ispañiola and claimed by Spain, which ruled until the early 17th century. Competing claims and settlements by the French led to the western portion of the island being ceded to France, which named it Saint-Domingue. The development of sugarcane plantations, worked by slaves brought from Africa, led to the colony being among the most lucrative in the world.[17]

In the midst of the French Revolution (1789-1799), slaves and free people of colour revolted in the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), culminating in the abolishment of slavery and the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte's army at the Battle of Vertières. Afterward the sovereign nation of Haiti was established on 1 January 1804  the first independent nation of Latin America and the Caribbean, the second republic in the Americas, the only nation in the western hemisphere to have defeated three European superpowers (Britain, France and Spain), and the only nation in the world established as a result of a successful slave revolt.[18][19] The rebellion that began in 1791 was led by a former slave and the first black general of the French Army, Toussaint Louverture, whose military genius and political acumen transformed an entire society of slaves into the independent country. Upon his death in a prison in France, he was succeeded by his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared Haiti's sovereignty and later became the first Emperor of Haiti, Jacques I.[20][21][22][23] The Haitian Revolution lasted nearly a decade; and apart from Alexandre Pétion, the first President of the Republic, all the first leaders of government were former slaves.[24] The Citadelle Laferrière is the largest fortress in the Americas. Henri Christophe  former slave and first king of Haiti, Henri I  built it to withstand a possible foreign attack.[25][26]

In addition to CARICOM, Haiti is a member of the Latin Union, the Organization of American States, and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States; it is also seeking associate membership status in the African Union.[27] It has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas. Most recently, in February 2004, a coup d'état originating in the north of the country forced the resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. A provisional government took control with security provided by the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Michel Martelly, the previous president, was elected in the 2011 general election.

Etymology

The name Haïti (or Hayti) comes from the indigenous Taíno language which was the native name[note 1] given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, "land of high mountains."[31] The h is silent in French and the ï in Haïti, is a diacritical mark used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately, as in the word naïve.[32] In English, the rules for the pronunciation is often disregarded, thus the spelling Haiti is used and pronounced as "Hay-ti".[33]

The name Haïti was restored by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors.[34]

In French, Haiti's nickname is the Pearl of the Antilles (La Perle des Antilles) because of both its natural beauty,[35] and the amount of wealth it accumulated for the Kingdom of France, as it was considered the richest colony owned by any of the European powers at the time.[36]

History

Main article: History of Haiti

Pre-European history

The five caciquedoms of Hispaniola at the time of the arrival of Christopher Columbus

At the time of European encounter, the island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three-eighths,[10][37] was one of many Caribbean islands inhabited by the Taíno Indians, speakers of an Arawakan language called Taino, which has been preserved in the Haitian Creole language. The Taíno name for the entire island was Haiti. The people had migrated over centuries into the Caribbean islands from South America. Genetic studies show they were related to the Yanomami of the Amazon Basin. They also originated in Central and South America. After migrating to Caribbean islands, in the 15th century, the Taíno were pushed into the northeast Caribbean islands by the Caribs.[38]

In the Taíno societies of the Caribbean islands, the largest unit of political organization was led by a cacique, or chief, as the Europeans understood them. The island of Haiti was divided among five Caciquats: the Magua in the north east, the Marien in the north west, the Xaragua in the south west, the Maguana in the center region of Cibao and the Higuey in the south east.[39][40] The caciquedoms were tributary kingdoms, with payment consisting of harvests.

Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day Léogane started as a French colonial town in the southwest, is beside the former capital of the caciquedom of Xaragua.[38]

Spanish rule (1492–1625)

1510 Taíno pictograph telling a story of missionaries arriving in Hispaniola

Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 5 December 1492, in an area that he named Môle Saint-Nicolas,[41] and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship the Santa María ran aground near the present site of Cap-Haïtien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad.

The sailors carried endemic Eurasian infectious diseases. The natives lacked immunity to these new diseases and died in great numbers in epidemics.[42][43] The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507.[44] The encomienda system forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations.[45]

The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos, 1512–13, which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism,[46] and gave legal framework to encomiendas. The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries.[47]

As a gateway to the Caribbean, Hispaniola became a haven for pirates during the early colonial period. The western part of the island was settled by French buccaneers. Among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco. He recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe. European nations were competing for control in the New World, in the Caribbean as well as in North America. France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island, by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, and divided Hispaniola between them.

French rule (1625–1804)

Further information: Saint-Domingue

France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo, the Spanish colony of Hispaniola and the name of its patron saint, Saint Dominic.[48]

To develop it into sugarcane plantations, the French imported thousands of slaves from Africa. Sugar was a lucrative commodity crop throughout the 18th century. By 1789, approximately 40,000 white colonists lived in Saint-Domingue. In contrast, by 1763 the white population of French Canada, a vast territory, had numbered 65,000.[49] The whites were vastly outnumbered by the tens of thousands of African slaves they had imported to work on their plantations, which were primarily devoted to the production of sugarcane. In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Blacks outnumbered whites by about ten-to-one.

The French-enacted Code Noir ("Black Code"), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, had established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms. Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years.[50] Many slaves died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever.[51] They had low birth rates, and there is evidence that some women aborted foetuses rather than give birth to children within the bonds of slavery.

As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color: the mixed-race descendants of white male colonists and black female slaves (and later, mixed-race women). Over time, many were released from slavery. They established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community. They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property. Some became slave holders. The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights.

Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)

Main article: Haitian Revolution
Burning of the town of Cap-Français, c.1815

Inspired by the French Revolution of 1789 and principles of the rights of man, free people of color and slaves in Saint-Domingue and the French West Indies pressed for freedom and more civil rights. Most important was the revolution of the slaves in Saint-Domingue, starting in the northern plains in 1791, where Africans greatly outnumbered the whites.

In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to re-establish control. To build an alliance with the gens de couleur and slaves, the French commissioners Sonthonax and Polverel abolished slavery in the colony. Six months later, the National Convention, led by Robespierre and the Jacobins, endorsed abolition and extended it to all the French colonies.[52]

Political leaders in the United States, which was a new republic itself, reacted with ambivalence, at times providing aid to enable planters to put down the revolt. Later in the revolution, the US provided support to black Haitian military forces, with the goal of reducing French influence in North America and the Caribbean.[53]

Toussaint Louverture, a former slave and leader in the slave revolt, drove out the Spanish (from Santo Domingo) and the British invaders who threatened the colony. In the uncertain years of revolution, the United States played both sides off against each other, with its traders supplying both the French and the rebels.[54] The struggle within Haiti between the free people of color led by André Rigaud and the black Haitians led by Louverture devolved into the War of the Knives in 1799 and 1800.[55][56] Many surviving free people of color left the island as refugees.

Battle between Polish troops in French service and the Haitian rebels

After Louverture created a separatist constitution, Napoléon Bonaparte in 1802 sent an expedition of 20,000 soldiers and as many sailors[57] under the command of his brother-in-law, General Charles Leclerc, to retake the island. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months, most of the French had died from yellow fever.[58] More than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals.[59] The French captured Louverture, transporting him to France for trial. He was imprisoned at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803 of exposure and possibly tuberculosis.[50]

The slaves, along with free gens de couleur and allies, continued their fight for independence. Jean-Jacques Dessalines defeated French troops at the Battle of Vertières on 18 November 1803, leading the first ever successful slave army revolution. In late 1803, France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire. With the war going badly, he sold Louisiana (New France) to the United States, in the Louisiana Purchase.

Early post-independence

Main article: 1804 Haiti massacre
Pétion and Dessalines swearing allegiance to one another before God; painting by Guillon-Lethière

The independence of Saint-Domingue was proclaimed by Dessalines on 1 January 1804.[60] The exact number of deaths due to the Haitian revolution is unknown. Slaves that made it to Haiti from the trans-Atlantic journey and slaves born in Haiti were first documented in Haiti's archives and transferred to France's Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of 2015, these records are in The National Archives of France. According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 25,000 whites, 22,000 free coloureds and 700,000 slaves.

Dessalines was proclaimed "Emperor for Life" by his troops.[61] Dessalines at first offered protection to the white planters and others.[62] Once in power, he ordered the massacre of most whites. Without regard to age or gender, those who did not swear allegiance to him were slain.[63] In the continuing competition for power, he was assassinated by rivals on 17 October 1806.[64]

Only three categories of white people were selected out as exceptions and spared: the Polish soldiers, the majority of whom deserted from the French army and fought alongside the Haitian rebels; the little group of German colonists invited to Nord-Ouest (North-West) Haiti before the revolution; and a group of medical doctors and professionals. Reportedly, people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were also spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.

Fearful of the influence of the slaves' revolution, US President Thomas Jefferson refused to recognize the new republic, as did most European nations. The US did not officially recognize Haiti for decades until after the American Civil War. Haiti's new government was not supported by other republics.

The revolution led to a wave of emigration.[65] In 1809, nearly 10,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue settled en masse in New Orleans.[66] They doubled the city's population. In addition, the newly arrived slaves added to the city's African population.[67]

Saint-Domingue was divided between the Kingdom of Haiti in the north, directed by Henri Christophe, who declared himself Henri I, and a republic in the south, directed by Alexandre Pétion, an homme de couleur. Henri Christophe established a semi-feudal corvée system, with a rigid education and economic code.[68]

President Pétion gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader Simón Bolívar, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada.[69] He was instrumental in aiding countries in South America achieve independence from Spain.

Beginning in 1821, President Jean-Pierre Boyer, also an homme de couleur and successor to Pétion, reunified the two parts of Haiti and extended control over the entire western portion of the island.[70] In addition, after Santo Domingo declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer sent forces in to take control. Boyer ruled the entire island with iron rule, ending slavery in Santo Domingo.[71] After Santo Domingo achieved independence from Haiti, it established a separate national identity.

Struggling to revive the agricultural economy to produce commodity crops, Boyer passed the Code Rural, which denied peasant laborers the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own. Following the Revolution, many peasants wanted to have their own farms rather than work on plantations.[72][73]

Citadelle Laferrière, is the largest fortress in the Americas, and one of the eighth wonders of the world.[26]

The American Colonization Society (ACS) encouraged free blacks in the United States to emigrate to Haiti. Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 African Americans migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by the ACS.[74] Many found the conditions too harsh and returned to the United States.

In July 1825, King Charles X of France, during a period of "restoration" for the monarchy, sent a fleet to reconquer the island. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the nation in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs (reduced to 90 million in 1838). After losing the support of Haiti's elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843. A long succession of coups followed his departure to exile.

The enforced payment to France reduced Haiti's economy for years. Western nations did not give Haiti formal diplomatic recognition. Both of these problems kept the Haitian economy and society isolated. Expatriates bankrolled and armed opposing groups.[75] In 1892, the German government supported suppression of the reform movement of Anténor Firmin and in 1897 the Germans used gun boat diplomacy to intimidate and then humiliate the Haitian government during the Luders Affair.

20th century

US Marines and guide in search of bandits, c. 1919

In January 1914, British, German and US military forces entered Haiti, ostensibly to protect their citizens from civil unrest at the time.[75] In an expression of the Theodore Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, the United States occupied the island in 1915. U.S. Marines were stationed in the country until 1934, a period of nineteen years.

Sisal was introduced to Haiti, and sugarcane and cotton became significant exports.[76] Haitian traditionalists, based in rural areas, were highly resistant to American-backed changes, while the urban elites wanted more control. Together they helped secure an end to the occupation in 1934.[77] The debts were still outstanding and the American financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941.[78]

Recognition of the distinctive traditionalism of the Haitian people had an influence on United States writers, including Eugene O'Neill, James Weldon Johnson, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston and Orson Welles.[79]

After US forces left in 1934, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo used anti-Haitian sentiment as a nationalist tool. In an event that became known as the Parsley Massacre, he ordered his Army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border.[80][81] Between 10,000 and 20,000 Haitians were killed.[80] One-quarter Haitian, Trujillo continued policies against the neighboring population for some time.

American and European tourists started to visit Haiti in the 1950s.[82]

The waterfront area of Port-au-Prince was redeveloped to allow cruise ship passengers to walk from the docks to cultural attractions. Among these attractions were the Moorish-styled Iron Market, where fine Haitian art and mahogany were sold. In the evenings entrepreneurs provided dancing, casino gambling and Voodoo shows. Truman Capote and Noël Coward visited the Hotel Oloffson, a 19th-century Gothic gingerbread mansion set in a tropical garden, which was even portrayed in the Graham Greene novel, The Comedians.[83]

"Papa Doc" Duvalier in 1968

After a period of disorder, in September 1957 Dr. François Duvalier was elected President of Haiti. Known as "Papa Doc" and initially popular, Duvalier was President until his death in 1971. He advanced black interests in the public sector, where over time people of color had predominated as the educated urban elite.[84] He stayed in power by enlisting an organization known as Tontons Macoutes ("Bogeymen"), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace and political opponents.[85]

Haiti's brief tourism boom was wiped out by the rule of Francois "Papa Doc" Duvalier and his unstable government. When his son Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier succeeded him as President for Life, tourism returned in the 1970s.[83] Vive la différence has long been Haiti's national tourism slogan[86] and its proximity to the United States, made Haiti a hot attraction until the Duvalier regime was ousted in 1986.[83]

Papa Doc's son Jean-Claude Duvalier – also known as "Baby Doc" – led the country from 1971 until his ouster in 1986, when protests led him to seek exile in France. Army leader General Henri Namphy headed a new National Governing Council.[87] General elections in November were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and Tontons Macoutes. Fraudulent elections followed. The elected President, Leslie Manigat, was overthrown some months later in the June 1988 Haitian coup d'état. The September 1988 Haitian coup d'état, which followed the St Jean Bosco massacre, revealed the increasing prominence of former Tontons Macoutes. General Prosper Avril led a military regime until March 1990.

In December 1990, a former Catholic priest, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected President in the Haitian general election. In September of the following year, Aristide was overthrown by the military in the 1991 Haitian coup d'état. In 1994, an American team negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders and the peaceful entry of US forces under Operation Uphold Democracy. This enabled the restoration of the democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president.[88] In October 1994, Aristide returned to Haiti to complete his term in office.[89] Aristide vacated the presidency in February 1996. In the 1995 election, René Préval was elected as president for a five-year term, winning 88% of the popular vote.

21st century

The November 2000 election returned Aristide to the presidency with 92% of the vote.[90] The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into the Convergence Démocratique, over a dispute in the May legislative elections. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence and human rights abuses. Aristide supporters attacked the opposition.[91] Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive.

In 2004, a revolt began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital; and Aristide was forced into exile, whereupon the United Nations stationed peacekeepers in Haiti. Some including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a "new coup d'état or modern kidnapping" by U.S. forces. Mrs. Aristide stated that the kidnappers wore US Special Forces uniforms, but changed into civilian clothes upon boarding the aircraft that was used to remove Aristide from Haiti.[92][93]

Boniface Alexandre assumed interim authority. René Préval was elected President in February 2006, following elections marked by uncertainties and popular demonstrations. The MINUSTAH remains in the country, having been there since the 2004 coup d'état. The United States led a vast international campaign to prevent Aristide from returning to his country while he was exiled in South Africa. Released Wikileaks cables show that high-level US and UN officials coordinated activity against Aristide to prevent him from "gaining more traction with the Haitian population and returning to Haiti." The United States and its allies allegedly poured tens of millions of dollars into unsuccessful efforts to slander Aristide as a drug trafficker, human rights violator, and heretical practitioner of Vodou.[94]

In 2004, Tropical Storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast of Haiti, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gonaïves.[95] In 2008 Haiti was again struck by tropical storms; Tropical Storm Fay, Hurricane Gustav, Hurricane Hanna and Hurricane Ike all produced heavy winds and rain. There were 331 dead and about 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid.[96] The state of affairs produced by these storms was intensified by already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.[97]

On 12 January 2010, at 4:53pm local time, Haiti was struck by a magnitude-7.0 earthquake. This was the country's most severe earthquake in over 200 years.[98] The 2010 Haiti earthquake was reported to have left up to 316,000 people dead and 1.6 million homeless,[99] though later reports found these numbers to have been grossly inflated, and put the death toll between 46,000 and 85,000.[100] The country has yet to recover from the 2010 earthquake and a subsequent and massive Haiti cholera outbreak that was triggered when cholera-infected waste from a MINUSTAH peacekeeping station contaminated the country's main river, the Artibonite.[101] The country has yet to fully recover, due to both the severity of the damage Haiti endured in 2010, as well as a government that was ineffective well before the earthquake.[102]

General elections had been planned for January 2010, but were postponed due to the earthquake. The elections were held on 28 November 2010 for the senate, the parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off between Michel Martelly and Mirlande Manigat took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner.[103] On 7 February 2016, Michel Martelly stepped down as president without a successor, but only after a deal was reached for a provisional government and leaving Prime Minister Evans Paul in power "until an interim president is chosen by both chambers of Parliament."[104]

In 2013, Haiti called for European nations to pay reparations for slavery and establish an official commission for the settlement of past wrong-doings. Attempting to sidestep the difficulty of evaluating the impact of the past in the present, the Economist wrote, "Any assistance to the region should be carefully targeted; and should surely stem from today's needs, not the wrongs of the past." [105] The topic, however, has more than a passing reference for a country that, as Lord Anthony Gifford wrote, "was forced to pay compensation to the government of France."[106]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Haiti
A map of Haiti
Labadee beach and village

Haiti is on the western part of Hispaniola, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic (the latter shares a 360-kilometre (224 mi) border with Haiti). Haiti at its closest point is about 45 nautical miles (83 km; 52 mi) away from Cuba and comprises the horseshoe-shape peninsula and because of this, it has a disproportionately long coastline and is second in length (1,771 km or 1,100 mi) in the Greater Antilles. Cuba has the longest.[107][108]

Haiti's terrain consists mainly of rugged mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys. The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. Haiti is the most mountainous nation in the Caribbean and its highest point is Pic la Selle, at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft).[12]

The northern region consists of the Massif du Nord (Northern Massif) and the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain). The Massif du Nord is an extension of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic. It begins at Haiti's eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the Plaine du Nord lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the Massif du Nord and the North Atlantic Ocean.

The central region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The Plateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the Massif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the Plateau Central are the Montagnes Noires, whose most northwestern part merges with the Massif du Nord. Its westernmost point is known as Cap Carcasse.

The southern region consists of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (also known as the Tiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression that harbors the country's saline lakes, such as Trou Caïman and Haiti's largest lake, Étang Saumatre. The Chaîne de la Selle mountain range – an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco) – extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte in the west. This mountain range harbors Pic la Selle, the highest point in Haiti at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft).[109]

Haiti's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which is oriented south of the Montagnes Noires. This region supports the country's (also Hispaniola's) longest river, the Riviere l'Artibonite, which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues most of its length through central Haiti and onward where it empties into the Golfe de la Gonâve. The eastern and central region of the island is a large elevated plateau.

Haiti also includes various offshore islands. The island of Tortuga (Île de la Tortue) is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The arrondissement of La Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in the Golfe de la Gonâve. Gonâve Island is moderately populated by rural villagers. Île à Vache (Cow Island), a lush island with many beautiful sights, is located off the tip of southwestern Haiti. Also part of Haiti are the Cayemites and Île d' Anacaona. La Navasse located 40 nautical miles (46 mi; 74 km) west of Jérémie on the south west peninsula of Haiti,[110] is subject to an ongoing territorial dispute with the United States.

Climate

Haiti's climate is tropical with some variation depending on altitude. Port-au-Prince ranges in January from an average minimum of 23 °C (73.4 °F) to an average maximum of 31 °C (87.8 °F); in July, from 25–35 °C (77–95 °F). The rainfall pattern is varied, with rain heavier in some of the lowlands and on the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains.

Port-au-Prince receives an average annual rainfall of 1,370 mm (53.9 in). There are two rainy seasons, April–June and October–November. Haiti is subject to periodic droughts and floods, made more severe by deforestation. Hurricanes are also a menace.

Geology

Haiti's topography

There are blind thrust faults associated with the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system over which Haiti lies.[111] After the earthquake of 2010, there was no evidence of surface rupture and based on seismological, geological and ground deformation data.[112]

The northern boundary of the fault is where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts eastwards by about 20 mm (0.79 inches) per year in relation to the North American plate. The strike-slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti, the Septentrional-Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault in the south.

A 2007 earthquake hazard study, noted that the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone could be at the end of its seismic cycle and concluded that a worst-case forecast would involve a 7.2 Mw earthquake, similar in size to the 1692 Jamaica earthquake.[113] A study team presented a hazard assessment of the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system to the 18th Caribbean Geologic Conference in March 2008, noting the large strain. The team recommended "high priority" historical geologic rupture studies, as the fault was fully locked and had recorded few earthquakes in the preceding 40 years.[114] An article published in Haiti's Le Matin newspaper in September 2008 cited comments by geologist Patrick Charles to the effect that there was a high risk of major seismic activity in Port-au-Prince.[115]

Haiti also has rare elements such as Gold, which can be found at The Mont Organisé gold mine.[116]

Environment

Haiti's border with the Dominican Republic in 2002 (right) shows the amount of deforestation on the Haitian side

The soil erosion and deforestation have caused periodic and severe flooding in Haiti, as experienced, for example, on 17 September 2004. Earlier in May that year, floods had killed over 3,000 people on Haiti's southern border with the Dominican Republic.[117]

There has been little marine, coastal, and river basin management. Forest cover in the steep hills surrounds Haiti's river basin retains soil, which in turn retains water from rainfall, reducing river flood peaks and conserving flows in the dry season. Haiti's forests covered 60 percent of the country as recently as fifty years ago, but today less than one percent of Haiti remains forested.[118]

Deforestation has resulted in much of the soil being released from the upper catchments. Many of Haiti's rivers are now highly unstable, changing rapidly from destructive flooding to inadequate flows.[119] Scientists at the Columbia University's Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) and the United Nations Environment Programme are working on the Haiti Regenerative Initiative an initiative aiming to reduce poverty and natural disaster vulnerability in Haiti through ecosystem restoration and sustainable resource management.

Flora

In 1925, Haiti was lush, with 60% of its original forest covering the lands and mountainous regions. In 1988 only 2% percent of land had tree cover. Haiti's residents have cut down forest cover for use as firewood, destroying soils and contributing to desertification and droughts.[120]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Haiti
Voting in the 2006 elections in Port-au-Prince

The government of Haiti is a semi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein the President of Haiti is head of state elected directly by popular elections.[121] The Prime Minister acts as head of government and is appointed by the President, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government. In 2013, the annual budget was US$1 billion.[122]

Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti. The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987.

Haitian politics have been contentious: since independence, Haiti has suffered 32 coups.[123] Haiti is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution, but a long history of oppression by dictators  including François Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude Duvalier  has markedly affected the nation. France, the United States and other Western countries have repeatedly intervened in Haitian politics since the country's founding, sometimes at the request of one party or another. Along with international financial institutions, they have imposed large quantities of debt – so much that foreign debt payments have rivaled the available government budget for social sector spending. They also enforced trade policies that have broken down the Haitian government's ability to protect the local economy, forcing greater dependence on imports and eroding economic self-sufficiency.[124]

According to a Corruption Perceptions Index report in 2006, there is a strong correlation between corruption and poverty and Haiti ranked first of all countries surveyed for of levels of perceived domestic corruption.[125] The International Red Cross reports that seven out of ten Haitians live on less than US$2 a day, however, stated below "such statistical estimations should be looked upon very skeptically because of the fact that the average Haitian and Haitian family has to and does spend a lot more than that daily. The disconnect likely lies in the fact that these are estimates based on surveys conducted by asking individuals what their incomes are; in the Haitian culture it is very unlikely that one will receive a truthful and accurate answer to such a personal question. For various reasons individuals will not tell the truth on such a private matter. For some it is because "it's none of your business," for others, they will simply exaggerate their poor situation in hopes that some type of financial aide will be gained or rendered to them".[126]

Cité Soleil in Port-au-Prince, one of the biggest slums in the Northern Hemisphere, has been called "the most dangerous place on Earth" by the United Nations.[127] Many residents are supporters of former Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide,[128] who, according to the BBC, "accused the US of forcing him out – an accusation the US rejected as 'absurd'".[129]

Jean-Bertrand Aristide was initially denied access to Haiti by Haitian immigration authorities, despite issuing appeals for entrance to his supporters and international observers. The world's most prominent governments did not overtly oppose such appeals, nor did they support them; an unnamed analyst "close to the Haitian government" quoted in several media sources  including The New York Times  is reported to have said: "Aristide could have 15 passports and he's still not going to come back to Haiti ... France and the United States are standing in the way." However, Aristide finally returned to Haiti on 18 March 2011, days before the 2011 presidential election.[130]

US Marines patrol the streets of Port-au-Prince on 14 April 2004

The first round of the 2010 general election was held in December. Mirlande Manigat and Jude Celestin qualified for the second round of the presidential election, but its results were contested. Some people said that the first round was a fraud and that Michel Martelly should replace Jude Celestin, René Préval's chosen successor. There was some violence between the contending parties.[131] On 4 April 2011, the Provisional Electoral Council announced preliminary results indicating that Martelly had won the presidential election.[132]

In February 2012, Haiti signaled it would seek to upgrade its observer status to full associate member status of the African Union (AU).[133] At its next summit in June 2013, the AU plans to upgrade Haiti's status from observer to associate.[134]

In 2010, the Haitian National Police force numbered 7,000.[135] The legal system for torts is based on a version of the Napoleonic Code.[136]

The Institute for the Protection of National Heritage has preserved 33 historical monuments and the historic center of Cap-Haïtien.[137]

Cabinet

Main article: Cabinet of Haiti

The executive function is divided into ministries, each led by a Minister appointed by the Prime Minister and confirmed by Parliament:[138][139][140]

Ministry Minister Address
Ministry of Planning and External Cooperation Yves Germain Joseph 347, Ave John Brown (Bourdon), Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of the Environment Jean-Marie Claude Germain Delmas 31, Rue Jacques 1 # 11, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Defense, Foreign Affairs and Worship Lener Renauld Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Commerce and Industry Hervey Day 6 Rue Legitimate, Port-au-Prince, Haiti HT-00116
Ministry of Education and Professionals Nesmy Manigat 5, Ave Jean-Paul II, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Economy and Finance Marie Carmelle Jean-Marie 22 Avenue Charles Summer, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Justice and Public Security Pierre Richard Casmir 19 Charles Sumner Avenue, Port-au-Prince, Hait
Ministry of Communication Rotchild François Jr. Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Tourism Stéphanie Villedrouin 8, Rue Legitimate (Champs-de-Mars), Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Rural Development Fresner Dorcin Route Nationale No. 1, Damien, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor Victor Benoit
Ministry of Interior and Territorial Communities Ariel Henry Palais des Ministeres, Champs de Mars, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Health Florence Duperval Guillaume 111, Rue Saint-Honore, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Foreign Affairs Duly Brutus Boulevard Harry Truman, Cité de l'Exposition, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Public Works, Transport and Communications (Haiti) Jacques Rousseau Palais des Ministeres, Rue Monseigneur Guilloux, B.P. 2002, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of The Youth & of Sports Jimmy Albert Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Culture Dithny Joan Raton Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of the Feminine Condition & the rights of Women Yves Rose Morquette Port-au-Prince, Haiti
Ministry of Haitians Living as Foreigners Robert Labrousse Rue Prosper No. 8, Bourdon, Musseau, Port-au-Prince, Haiti, HT6140
Minister Delegated to the Prime Minister in charge of social programs and projects of the Government Edouard Jules Port-au-Prince, Haiti

Military

Main article: Military of Haiti

Haiti's Ministry of Defense is the main body of their armed forces.[141] The former Haitian Armed Forces were demobilized in 1995, however, efforts to reconstitute it are currently underway.[142] The current defense force for Haiti is the Haitian National Police, which has a highly trained SWAT team, and works alongside the Haitian Coast Guard.

Law enforcement and crime

Law enforcement in Haiti is maintained primarily by police forces for each department. The Direction Département de L’Ouest (DDO) in Port-au-Prince, is one of the six offices in the metropolitan area.[143]

Haiti has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the Corruption Perceptions Index.[144] It is estimated that President "Baby Doc" Duvalier, his wife Michelle, and their agents stole US $504 million from the country's treasury between 1971 and 1986.[145]

Similarly, some media outlets alleged that millions were stolen by former president Jean-Bertrand Aristide.[146][147][148][149] In March 2004, at the time of Aristide's being kidnapped, a BBC article wrote that the Bush administration State Department stated that Aristide had been involved in drug trafficking.[150] The BBC also described pyramid schemes, in which Haitians lost hundreds of millions in 2002, as the "only real economic initiative" of the Aristide years.[151]

Conversely, according to the 2013 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) report, murder rates in Haiti (10.2 per 100,000) are far below the regional average (26 per 100,000); less than ¼ that of Jamaica (39.3 per 100,000) and nearly ½ that of the Dominican Republic (22.1 per 100,000), making it among the safer countries in the region.[152][153] In large part, this is due to the country's ability to fulfill a pledge by increasing its national police yearly by 50%, a four-year initiative that was started in 2012. In addition to the yearly recruits, the Haitian National Police (HNP) has been using innovative technologies to crackdown on crime. A notable bust in recent years, led to the dismantlement of the largest kidnapping ring in the country with the use of an advanced software program developed by a Westpoint-trained Haitian official that proved to be so effective that it has led to its foreign advisers to make inquiries.[154][155]

In 2010, the New York City Police Department (NYPD) has sent a team of veteran officers to Haiti to assist in the rebuilding of its police force with special training in investigative techniques, strategies to improve the anti-kidnapping personnel and community outreach to build stronger relationships with the public especially among the youth. It has also helped the HNP set up a police unit in the center of Delmas, a neighborhood of Port-au-Prince.[156][157][158]

In 2012 and 2013, 150 HNP officers received specialized training funded by the US government, which also contributed to the infrastructure and communications support by upgrading radio capacity and constructing new police stations from the most violent-prone neighborhoods of Cité Soleil and Grande Ravine in Port-au-Prince to the new northern industrial park at Caracol.[158]

Administrative divisions

Administratively, Haiti is divided into ten departments. The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses.

Departments of Haiti
  1. Nord-Ouest (Port-de-Paix)
  2. Nord (Cap-Haïtien)
  3. Nord-Est (Fort-Liberté)
  4. Artibonite (Gonaïves)
  5. Centre (Hinche)
  6. Ouest (Port-au-Prince)
  7. Grand'Anse (Jérémie)
  8. Nippes (Miragoâne)
  9. Sud (Les Cayes)
  10. Sud-Est (Jacmel)

The departments are further divided into 42 arrondissements, 145 communes and 571 communal sections. These serve as, respectively, second- and third-level administrative divisions.[159][160][161]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Haiti
A proportional representation of Haiti's exports

Haiti's purchasing power parity GDP fell 8% in 2010 (from US$12.15 billion to US$11.18 billion) and the GDP per capita remained unchanged at PPP US$1,200.[2] Despite having a viable tourist industry, Haiti is one of the world's poorest countries and the poorest in the Americas region, with poverty, corruption, poor infrastructure, lack of health care and lack of education cited as the main sources. The economy receded due to the 2010 earthquake and subsequent outbreak of Cholera. Haiti ranked 145 of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations Human Development Index, with 57.3% of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI's poverty measures.[162]

Following the disputed 2000 election and accusations about President Aristide's rule,[163] US aid to the Haitian government was cut off between 2001 and 2004.[164] After Aristide's departure in 2004, aid was restored and the Brazilian army led a United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti peacekeeping operation. After almost four years of recession, the economy grew by 1.5% in 2005.[165] In September 2009, Haiti met the conditions set out by the IMF and World Bank's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program to qualify for cancellation of its external debt.[166]

More than 90 percent of the government’s budget comes from an agreement with Petrocaribe, a Venezuela-led oil alliance.[167]

Foreign aid

Further information: Foreign aid to Haiti

Foreign aid is indispensable to Haiti. Haiti received more than US$4 billion in aid from 1990 to 2003, including US$1.5 billion from the United States.[168]

The largest donor is the US, followed by Canada and the European Union.[169] In January 2010, following the earthquake, US President Barack Obama promised US$1.15 billion in assistance.[170] European Union nations pledged more than €400 million (US$616 million).[171]

According to the UN Office of the Special Envoy for Haiti, as of March 2012, of Humanitarian funding committed or disbursed by bilateral and multilateral donors in 2010 and 2011, only 1% has been pledged to the Haitian Government[172]

According to the 2013 CIA World Factbook, the 2010 Haiti earthquake inflicted an estimated US$7.8 billion in damage and caused the country's GDP to contract.[173]

The United Nations states that in total US$13.34 billion has been earmarked for the crisis through 2020, though two years after the 2010 quake, less than half of that amount had actually been released, according to UN documents. As of 2015, the US government has allocated US$4 billion; US$3 billion has already been spent, and the rest is dedicated to longer-term projects.[174]

Former US President Bill Clinton's foundation contributed US$250,000 to a recycling initiative for a sister-program of "Ranmase Lajan" or "Picking Up Money" by use of reverse vending machines.[175]

Trade

According to the 2015 CIA World Factbook, Haiti's main import partners are: Dominican Republic 35%, US 26.8%, Netherlands Antilles 8.7%, China 7% (est. 2013). Haiti's main export partner is the US 83.5% (est. 2013).[176]

Haiti had a trade deficit of US$3 billion in 2011, or 41% of GDP.[177]

Energy

Haiti relies heavily on an oil alliance with Petrocaribe for much of its energy requirements. In recent years, hydroelectric, solar and wind energy have been explored as possible sustainable energy sources.[178]

Personal income

A market in Cap Haitien

The World Factbook reports a shortage of skilled labor, widespread unemployment and underemployment, saying "more than two-thirds of the labor force do not have formal jobs." It is also often stated that three-quarters of the population lives on US$2 or less per day. Such statistical estimations could be viewed with skepticism because the average Haitian and Haitian family spends more than that daily.

The World Factbook also states that "remittances are the primary source of foreign exchange, equaling one-fifth (20%) of GDP and representing more than five times the earnings from exports in 2012".[179] This implies that remittances are the life-blood of the Haitian economy.

The World Bank estimates that over 80% of college graduates from Haiti were living abroad in 2004.[180]

Haiti continues to exhibit the greatest income inequality in the continent, and is one of the most unequal countries in the world. The richest 20% of households earn 64% of the country’s total income, while the poorest 20% makes do with just 1%.[181]

Between 2000 and 2012, the percentage of people living in extreme poverty  with one dollar or less a day  dropped from 31% to 24% at the national level, and from 20% to 5% in Port-au-Prince. More than 200,000 people have climbed out of poverty. There is a growing gap between Port-au-Prince and the rest of the country. More than 80% of those living in extreme poverty do so in rural areas. Families in the north and southwest of the country work hard to grow food, but they fail to earn enough. Extreme climatic events, lack of fertilizers, pesticides and seeds, and limited market access are just some of the impediments they face.[181]

Haiti's economy was severely impacted by the 2010 Haiti earthquake which occurred on 12 January 2010, killing over 300,000 and displacing 1.5 million residents.[182]

Real estate

In rural areas, people often live in wooden huts with corrugated iron roofs. Outhouses are located in back of the huts. In Port-au-Prince, colorful shantytowns surround the central city and go up the mountainsides.[183]

The middle and upper classes live in Suburbs, or in the central part of the bigger cities in apartments, where there is urban planning. Many of the houses they live in are like miniature fortresses, located behind walls embedded with metal spikes, barbed wire, broken glass, and sometimes all three. The gates to these houses are barred at night, the house is locked; guard dogs patrol the yard. These houses are often self-sufficient as well. The houses have backup generators, because the electrical grid in Haiti is unreliable. Some even have rooftop reservoirs for water, as the water supply is also unreliable.[183]

Agriculture

Further information: Agriculture in Haiti

Haiti is the world's leading producer of vetiver, a root plant used to make luxury perfumes, essential oils and fragrances, providing for half the world's supply.[184][185][186] Half of all Haitians work in the agricultural sector.[187] Haiti relies upon imports for half its food needs and 80% of its rice.[187]

Haiti exports crops such as mangoes, cacao, coffee, papayas, mahogany nuts, spinach, and watercress.[188] Agricultural products comprise 6% of all exports.[177] In addition, local agricultural products include corn, beans, cassava, sweet potato, peanuts, pistachios, bananas, millet, pigeon peas, sugarcane, rice, sorghum, and wood.[188][189]

Currency

Main article: Haitian gourde

The Haitian gourde (HTG) is the national currency. The "Haitian dollar" equates to 5 gourdes (goud), which is a fixed exchange rate that exists in concept only, but are commonly used as informal prices.

The vast majority of the business sector and individuals in Haiti will also accept US dollars, though at the outdoor markets gourdes may be preferred. Locals may refer to the USD as "dollar américain" (dola ameriken) or "dollar US" (pronounced oos).[190]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Haiti
Seaside in Jacmel
Labadee, a cruise ship destination

In 2014, the country received 1,250,000 tourists (mostly from cruise ships), and the industry generated US$200 million in 2014.[122] In December 2014, the US State Department issued a travel warning about the country, noting that while thousands of American citizens safely visit Haiti each year, a few foreign tourists had been victims of burglary, predominantly in the Port-au-Prince area.[191]

Several hotels were opened in 2014, including an upscale Best Western Premier,[192][193] a five-star Royal Oasis hotel by Occidental Hotel and Resorts in Pétionville,[194] a four-star Marriott hotel in the Turgeau area of Port-au-Prince[195] and other new hotel developments in Port-au-Prince, Les Cayes, Cap-Haïtien and Jacmel. Other tourist destinations include Île-à-Vache, Camp-Perrin, Pic Macaya.

The Haitian Carnival has been one of the most popular carnivals in the Caribbean. In 2010, the government decided to stage the event in a different city outside Port-au-Prince every year in an attempt to decentralize the country.[196][197] The National Carnival  usually held in one of the country's largest cities (i.e., Port-au-Prince, Cap-Haïtien or Les Cayes)  follows the also very popular Jacmel Carnival, which takes place a week earlier in February or March.[196]

Caracol Industrial Park

On 21 October 2012, Haitian President Michel Martelly, US Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, Bill Clinton, Richard Branson, Ben Stiller and Sean Penn inaugurated the 600 acres (240 ha) Caracol industrial park, the largest in the Caribbean.[198] Costing US$300 million, the project, which includes a 10-megawatt power plant, a water-treatment plant and worker housing, is intended to transform the northern part of the country by creating 65,000 jobs.[198]

The park is part of a "master plan" for Haiti's North and North-East departments, including the expansion of the Cap-Haitien International Airport to accommodate large international flights, the construction of an international Seaport in Fort-Liberté and the opening of the $50 million Roi Henri Christophe Campus of a new university in Limonade (near Cap-Haitien) on 12 January 2012.[199]

South Korean clothing manufacturer Sae-A Trading Co. Ltd, one of the park's main tenants, has created 5,000 permanent jobs out of the 20,000 projected and has built 8,600 houses in the surrounding area for its workers. The industrial park ultimately has the potential to create as many as 65,000 jobs once fully developed.[200][201]

Infrastructure

Transportation

Main article: Transport in Haiti
Rail map as of 1925

Haiti has two main highways that run from one end of the country to the other. The northern highway, Route Nationale No. 1 (National Highway One), originates in Port-au-Prince, winding through the coastal towns of Montrouis and Gonaïves, before reaching its terminus at the northern port Cap-Haïtien. The southern highway, Route Nationale No. 2, links Port-au-Prince with Les Cayes via Léogâne and Petit-Goâve.

According to the Washington Post, "Officials from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers said Saturday [23 January 2010] that they assessed the damage from the [12 January] quake in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and found that many of the roads aren't any worse than they were before because they've always been in poor condition."[202]

The port at Port-au-Prince, Port international de Port-au-Prince, has more registered shipping than any of the other dozen ports in the country. The port's facilities include cranes, large berths, and warehouses, but these facilities are not in good condition. The port is underused, possibly due to the substantially high port fees. The port of Saint-Marc is currently the preferred port of entry for consumer goods coming into Haiti. Reasons for this may include its location away from volatile and congested Port-au-Prince, as well as its central location relative to numerous Haitian cities.

During the 2010 earthquake, the Port-au-Prince port suffered widespread damage, impeding aid to the victims. The main pier caved in and fell into the water. One of the main cranes also collapsed in the water. Port access roads were severely damaged as well.

In the past, Haiti used rail transport, however the rail infrastructure was poorly maintained when in use and cost of rehabilitation is beyond the means of the Haitian economy.

Airports

Toussaint Louverture International Airport is located 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) North/North East of Port-au-Prince. It has Haiti's main jetway, and along with Hugo Chavez International Airport located near Cap-Haïtien, handles the vast majority of the country's international flights. To travel on from the international airport at Port-au-Prince to other Haitian cities requires boarding a smaller plane. Cities such as Jacmel, Jérémie, Les Cayes, and Port-de-Paix have airports that are accessible by smaller aircraft. Companies that fly to these airports include: Caribintair, Sunrise Airways and Tortug' Air.

In 2013, plans for the development of an international airport on Île-à-Vache were introduced by the Prime Minister.[203]

Bus service

A "Tap tap" bus in Port-Salut

Tap tap buses are colorfully painted buses or pick-up trucks that serve as share taxis. The "tap tap" name comes from the sound of passengers tapping on the metal bus body to indicate they want off.[204] These vehicles for hire are often privately owned and extensively decorated. They follow fixed routes, do not leave until filled with passengers, and riders can usually disembark at any point. The decorations are a typically Haitian form of art.[205]

In August 2013, the first coach bus prototype was made in Haiti.[206]

Electricity

Much of the electrical energy provided by the EDH s generated by the Péligre Hydroelectric dam of Haiti.

Communications

In Haiti, communications include the radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Haiti ranked last among North American countries in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI)  an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Haiti ranked number 143 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 141 in 2013.[207]

Water supply and sanitation

Haiti faces key challenges in the water supply and sanitation sector: Notably, access to public services is very low, their quality is inadequate and public institutions remain very weak despite foreign aid and the government's declared intent to strengthen the sector's institutions. Foreign and Haitian NGOs play an important role in the sector, especially in rural and urban slum areas.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Haiti
Haiti's population (1961–2003)

Haiti's population was about 10.1 million according to UN 2011 estimates,[208] with half of the population younger than age 20.[209] In 1950 the first formal census gave a total population of 3.1 million.[210] Haiti averages approximately 350 people per square kilometer (~900 per sq mi.), with its population is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys.

Most modern Haitians are descendants of former black African slaves, including Mulattoes who are of multiracial admixture. The remainder are of European and Levantine/Semitic descent,[211][212] the descendants of settlers (colonial remnants and contemporary immigration during WWI and WWII). Haitians of East Asian descent or East Indian origin number approximately 400+.

Millions of Haitians live abroad in the United States, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Canada (primarily Montreal), Bahamas, France, French Antilles, the Turks and Caicos, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Brazil and French Guiana. There are an estimated 881,500 in the United States,[213] 800,000 in the Dominican Republic,[214] 300,000 in Cuba,[215] 100,000 in Canada,[216] 80,000 in France,[217] and up to 80,000 in the Bahamas.[218] But there are also smaller Haitian communities in many other countries, including Chile, Switzerland, Japan and Australia.

In 2015, the life expectancy at birth was 63 years.[219]

Population genetics

Autosomal DNA

The gene pool of Haiti is about 95.5% Sub-Saharan African, 4.3% European, with the rest showing some traces of East Asian genes;[220] according to a 2010 autosomal genealogical DNA testing. The same study found that Jamaica’s gene pool is 78.3% Sub-Saharan African, 16.0% European, and 5.7% East Asian.[221]

Y-chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA

A 2012 genetic study on Haitian and Jamaican Y-chromosomal ancestry, has revealed that both populations "exhibit a predominantly Sub-Saharan paternal component, with haplogroups A1b-V152, A3-M32, B2-M182, E1a-M33, E1b1a-M2, E2b-M98, and R1b2-V88" comprising (77.2%) of the Haitian and (66.7%) of Jamaican paternal gene pools.[222] Y Chromosomes indicative of European ancestry "(i.e., haplogroups G2a*-P15, I-M258, R1b1b-M269, and T-M184) were detected at commensurate levels in Haiti (20.3%) and Jamaica (18.9%)".[222] This corresponds to approximately 1 in every 5 Paternal ancestors, hailing from Europe. While, Y-haplogroups indicative of Chinese O-M175 (3.8%) and Indian H-M69 (0.6%) and L-M20 (0.6%) ancestry were found at significant levels in Jamaica,[222] Levantine Y-haplogroups were found in Haiti.

Duffy antigens

According to a 2008 study examining the frequency of the Duffy antigen receptor for Chemokines (DARC) Single Nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), (75%) of Haitian women sampled exhibited the CC genotype (absent among women of European ancestry) at levels comparable to US African-Americans (73%), but more than Jamaican females (63%).[221][223]

Casta discrimination

Main articles: Casta and Gens de couleur

Due to the racial caste system instituted in colonial Haiti, Haitian mulattoes became the nation's social elite and racially privileged. Numerous leaders throughout Haiti's history have been mulattoes. Comprising 5% of the nation's population, mulattoes have retained their preeminence, evident in the political, economic, social and cultural hierarchy in Haiti.[224] Alexandre Pétion, born to a Haitian mother and a wealthy French father, was the first President of the Republic of Haiti.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Haiti

Religion in Haiti

  Catholicism (80%)
  Protestantism (16%)
  other religion (3%)
  no religion (1%)

The 2015 CIA Factbook, reported that around 80% of Haitians profess to being Catholics while Protestants made up about 16% of the population (Baptist 10%, Pentecostal 4%, Adventist 1%, other 1%). Other sources put the Protestant population higher than this, suggesting that it might have formed one-third of the population in 2001.[225] Haitian Cardinal Chibly Langlois is president of the National Bishops Conference of the Catholic Church.

Vodou, a religion with African roots similar to those of Cuba and Brazil, originated during colonial times in which slaves were obliged to disguise their loa or spirits as Roman Catholic saints, an element of a process called syncretism and is still practiced by some Haitians today. Since the religious syncretism between Catholicism and Vodou, it is difficult to estimate the number of Vodouists in Haiti.[226][227]

Minority religions in Haiti include Islam, Bahá'í Faith, Judaism, and Buddhism.[2]

Languages

The two official languages of Haiti are French and Haitian Creole. French is the principal written and administratively authorized language (as well as the main language of the press) and is spoken by 42% of Haitians.[228][229] It is spoken by all educated Haitians, is the medium of instruction in most schools, and is used in the business sector. It is also used in ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations and church masses.

Haiti is one of two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as an official language; the other French-speaking areas are all overseas départements, or collectivités, of France. Haitian Creole,[230] which has recently undergone a standardization, is spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti.[231] Haitian Creole is one of the French-based creole languages. Its vocabulary is 90% derived from French, but its grammar and influences are from some West African, Taino, Spanish, and Portuguese languages.[232] Haitian Creole is related to the other French creoles, but most closely to Antillean Creole and Louisiana Creole variants.

Emigration

Main article: Haitian diaspora

Emigrants from Haiti have constituted a segment of American and Canadian society, before the independence of Haiti from France in 1804.

Haiti's proximity to the United States, and its status as a free black republic in the years before the American Civil War, have contributed to this relationship. Many influential early American settlers and black freemen, including Jean Baptiste Point du Sable and W. E. B. Du Bois, were of Haitian origin.[233][234][235][236]

Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, an immigrant from Saint-Domingue (now the Republic of Haiti), founded the first nonindigenous settlement in what is now Chicago, Illinois, the third largest city in the United States. The state of Illinois and city of Chicago declared du Sable the founder of Chicago on 26 October 1968.[233][234][235]

Largest cities

Further information: List of cities in Haiti

Culture

Main article: Culture of Haiti

Haiti has a unique cultural identity consisting of a large blend of traditional customs of French and African, mixed with sizeable contributions from the Spanish and indigenous Taíno culture.[237] The country's customs essentially are a blend of cultural beliefs that derived from the various ethnic groups that inhabited the island of Hispaniola. Haiti's culture is greatly reflected in its paintings, music, and literature. Galleries and museums in the United States and France have exhibited the works of the better-known artists to have come out of Haiti.[238]

Art

Main article: Haitian art

Haitian art is distinctive, particularly through its paintings and sculptures, known for its various artistic expressions.[237][239][240] Brilliant colors, naïve perspectives, and sly humor characterize Haitian art. Frequent subjects in Haitian art include big, delectable foods, lush landscapes, market activities, jungle animals, rituals, dances, and gods. Artists frequently paint in fables. People are disguised as animals and animals are transformed into people.

As a result of a deep history and strong African ties, symbols take on great meaning within Haitian society. For example, a rooster often represents Aristide and the red and blue colors of the Haitian flag often represent his Lavalas party. Many artists cluster in 'schools' of painting, such as the Cap-Haïtien school, which features depictions of daily life in the city, the Jacmel School, which reflects the steep mountains and bays of that coastal town, or the Saint-Soleil School, which is characterized by abstracted human forms and is heavily influenced by Vodou symbolism.

Music and dance

Further information: Music of Haiti

Haitian music combines a wide range of influences drawn from the many people who have settled on this Caribbean island. It reflects French, African rhythms, Spanish elements and others who have inhabited the island of Hispaniola and minor native Taino influences. Styles of music unique to the nation of Haiti include music derived from Vodou ceremonial traditions, Rara parading music, Twoubadou ballads, Mini-jazz rock bands, Rasin movement, Hip hop Kreyòl, Méringue,[241] and Compas. Youth attend parties at nightclubs called discos, (pronounced "deece-ko"), and attend Bal. This term is the French word for ball, as in a formal dance.

Compas (konpa) (also known as compas direct in French, or konpa dirèk in creole)[242] is a complex, ever-changing music that arose from African rhythms and European ballroom dancing, mixed with Haiti's bourgeois culture. It is a refined music, with méringue as its basic rhythm. Haiti had no recorded music until 1937 when Jazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially.[243]

Literature

Main article: Haitian literature

Dating back to the days of its independence, Haiti has always been a literary nation that has produced a number of poetry and plays of international reputation. Despite attempts to write in Haitian Creole dating back to the eighteenth century due to its unofficial status, French has always been the exclusive literary language of Haiti. With the recognition of Creole as an official language, more and more novels, poems, and plays are being written in Creole. In 1975, the first novel written entirely in Haitian Creole was published entitled Dezafi written by Franketienne describing a poetic picture of Haitian life.[238][244]

Cuisine

Main article: Haitian cuisine
A table set with Haitian cuisine

Haitian cuisine originates from several culinary styles from the various historical ethnic groups that populated the western portion of the island of Hispaniola. Haitian cuisine is similar to the rest of the Latin-Caribbean (the French and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Antilles), however it differs in several ways from its regional counterparts. While the cuisine is unpretentious and simple, the flavors are bold and spicy that demonstrate a primary influence of African culinary aesthetic, paired with a very French sophistication with notable derivatives coming from native Taíno and Spanish techniques. Though similar to other cooking styles in the region, it carries a uniqueness native to the country, many visitors to the island have mixed reviews of Haitian cuisine. Haitians often use peppers and other strong flavorings.[245]

Dishes tend to be seasoned liberally. Consequently Haitian cuisine is often moderately spicy. In the country, however, several foreign cuisines have been introduced. These include Levantine from Arab migration to Haiti. Rice and beans in several differing ways are eaten throughout the country regardless of location, becoming a sort of national dish. They form the staple diet, which consists of a lot of starch and is high in carbohydrates. Rural areas, with better access to agricultural products, have a larger variety of choices.

One such dish is mais moulu (mayi moulen), which is comparable to grits that can be eaten with sauce pois (sòs pwa), a bean sauce made from one of many types of beans such as kidney, pinto, chickpeas, or pigeon peas (known in some countries as gandules). Mais moulin can be eaten with fish (often red snapper), or alone depending on personal preference. Some of the many plants used in Haitian dishes include tomato, oregano, cabbage, avocado, bell peppers. A popular food is banane pesée (ban-nan'n peze), flattened plantain slices fried in cooking oil (known as tostones in the Spanish speaking Latin American countries). It is eaten both as a snack and as part of a meal is, often eaten with tassot and griot (deep-fried goat and pork).[246]

Traditionally, the food that Haitians eat on the independence day (1 January) is soup joumou.[247] Haiti is also known internationally for its rum; Rhum Barbancourt is the most popular alcoholic beverage in Haiti, and it is regarded highly by international standards.[245]

Architecture

Monuments include the Sans-Souci Palace and the Citadelle Laferrière, inscribed as a World Heritage site in 1982.[248] Situated in the Northern Massif du Nord, in one of Haiti's National Parks, the structures date from the early 19th century.[249] The buildings were among the first built after Haiti's independence from France. The Citadelle Laferrière, is the largest fortress in the Americas, is located in northern Haiti. It was built between 1805 and 1820 and is today referred to by some Haitians as the eighth wonder of the world.[26]

Jacmel, a colonial city that was tentatively accepted as a World Heritage site, was extensively damaged by the 2010 Haiti earthquake.[249]

Museums

Santa María's anchor on display

The anchor of Christopher Columbus' largest ship, the Santa María now rests in the Musée du Panthéon National Haïtien (MUPANAH), in Port-au-Prince, Haiti.[250]

Folklore and mythology

Main article: Haitian mythology

Haiti is known for its folklore traditions.[251] The country has tales that are part of the Haitian Vodou tradition.

National holidays and festivals

Further information: Public holidays in Haiti
Date English name Local name (in French) Remarks
1 January New Year's Day and Independence Day Nouvel an / Jour de l'an / Premier de l'a et Jour de l'Indépendance Act of Independence against France
2 January Ancestry Day Jour des Aieux Commemorates ancestors who have died fighting for freedom.
6 January Epiphany Le Jour des Rois Celebrates the Three Wise Men's visit to see the newborn Christ.
moveable Carnival/Mardi Gras Carnaval/Mardi Gras
1 May Labour and Agriculture Day Fête du Travail / Fête des Travailleurs International holiday
18 May Flag and Universities' Day Jour du Drapeau et de l'Université Celebrates the educational system and creation of the flag.
15 August Assumption of Mary L'Assomption de Marie
17 October Anniversary of the death of Dessalines Anniversaire de la mort de Dessalines commemorates the death of Jean-Jacques Dessalines.
1 November All Saints Day La Toussaint Christian holiday; commemorates the sainthood.
2 November All Souls' Day Jour des Morts Another Christian holiday; commemorates the faithful departed.
18 November Battle of Vertières Day Vertières Commemorates the victory over the French in the Battle of Vertières in the year 1803.[252]
5 December Discovery Day Découverte d'Haïti Commemorates Christopher Columbus' landing on Hispaniola in 1492.
25 December Christmas Noël Traditional Christmas celebration.

The most festive time of the year in Haiti is during Carnival (referred to as Kanaval in Haitian Creole or Mardi Gras) in February. There is music, parade floats, and dancing and singing in the streets. Carnival week is traditionally a time of all-night parties.

Rara is a festival celebrated before Easter. The festival has generated a style of Carnival music.

Sports

Haiti national football team training in Port-au-Prince, 2004

Football is the most popular sport in Haiti with hundreds of small football clubs competing at the local level. Basketball is growing in popularity.[253][253] Stade Sylvio Cator is the multi-purpose stadium in Port-au-Prince, where it is currently used mostly for association football matches that fits a capacity of 30,000 people. In 1974, the Haiti national football team were only the second Caribbean team to make the World Cup (after Cuba's entry in 1938). They lost in the opening qualifying stages against three of the pre-tournament favorites; Italy, Poland, and Argentina. The national team won the 2007 Caribbean Nations Cup.[254]

Haiti has participated in the Olympic Games since the year 1900 and won a number of medals. Haitian footballer Joe Gaetjens played for the United States national team in the 1950 FIFA World Cup, scoring the winning goal in the 1–0 upset of England.[255]

Notable natives and residents

Main article: List of Haitians

Education

Main article: Education in Haiti
The Universite Roi Henri Christophe in Limonade

The educational system of Haiti is based on the French system. Higher education, under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education,[260] is provided by universities and other public and private institutions.[261]

More than 80% of primary schools are privately managed by nongovernmental organizations, churches, communities, and for-profit operators, with minimal government oversight.[262] According to the 2013 Millennium Development Goals (MDG) Report, Haiti has steadily boosted net enrollment rate in primary education from 47% in 1993 to 88% in 2011, achieving equal participation of boys and girls in education.[263] Charity organizations, including Food for the Poor and Haitian Health Foundation, are building schools for children and providing necessary school supplies. According to CIA 2015 World Factbook, Haiti's literacy rate is now 60.7% (est. 2015).

The January 2010 earthquake, was a major setback for education reform in Haiti as it diverted limited resources to survival.[264]

Many reformers have advocated the creation of a free, public and universal education system for all primary school-age students in Haiti. The Inter-American Development Bank estimates that the government will need at least US$3 billion to create an adequately funded system.[265]

Upon successful graduation of secondary school, students may continue into higher education. The higher education schools in Haiti include the University of Haiti. There are also medical schools and law schools offered at both the University of Haiti and abroad. Presently, Brown University is cooperating with L'Hôpital Saint-Damien in Haiti to coordinate a pediatric health care curriculum.[266]

Health

Main article: Health in Haiti

In the past, children's vaccination rates have been low  as of 2012, 60% of the children in Haiti under the age of 10 were vaccinated,[267][268] compared to rates of childhood vaccination in other countries in the 93–95% range.[269] Recently there have been mass vaccination campaigns claiming to vaccinate as many as 91% of a target population against specific diseases (measles and rubella in this case).[270] Most people have no transportation or access to Haitian hospitals.[271]

The World Health Organization cites diarrheal diseases, HIV/AIDS, meningitis, and respiratory infections as common causes of death in Haiti.[272] Ninety percent of Haiti's children suffer from waterborne diseases and intestinal parasites.[273] HIV infection is found in 1.8% of Haiti's population.[274] The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) in Haiti is more than ten times as high as in the rest of Latin America.[275] Approximately 30,000 Haitians fall ill with malaria each year.[276]

Most people living in Haiti are at high risk for major infectious diseases. Food or water-borne diseases include bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, typhoid fever and hepatitis A and E; common vector-borne diseases are dengue fever and malaria; water-contact diseases include leptospirosis. Roughly 75% of Haitian households lack running water. Unsafe water, along with inadequate housing and unsanitary living conditions, contributes to the high incidence of infectious diseases. There is a chronic shortage of health care personnel and hospitals lack resources, a situation that became readily apparent after the January 2010 earthquake.[277] The infant mortality rate in Haiti in 2013 was 55 deaths per 1,000 live births, compared to a rate of 6 per 1,000 in other countries.[278]

See also

Notes

  1. The Taínos may have used Bohío as another name for the island.[28][29][30]

References

  1. "Article 4 of the Constitution". Haiti-reference.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  2. 1 2 3 "Haiti". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
  3. 1 2 Haiti & The Dominican Republic IMF population estimates
  4. 1 2 3 4 "Haiti". International Monetary Fund.
  5. "Gini Index". The World Bank. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
  6. "2014 Human Development Report Summary" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2014. pp. 21–25. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  7. gTLDs, ccTLDs
  8. "Konstitisyon Repiblik Ayiti 1987". Ufdc.ufl.edu. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  9. "CIA World Factbook - Haiti's economy". Retrieved 22 August 2015.
  10. 1 2 "Hispaniola Article". Britannica.com. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
  11. "Dominican Republic 2014". Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  12. 1 2 NgCheong-Lum, Roseline. Haiti (Cultures of the World). New York, NY: Times Editions Pte Ltd. (1995). p. 19. ISBN 0-7614-1968-3. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  13. Davies, Arthur (1953). "The Loss of the Santa Maria Christmas Day, 1492". The American Historical Review: 854–865.
  14. Maclean, Frances (January 2008). "The Lost Fort of Columbus". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
  15. "Haïti histoire – 7 Bord de Mer de Limonade". Nilstremmel.com. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
  16. "Article du ''Florida Museum of Natural History''". Flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
  17. France and the History of Haiti by Gearóid Ó Colmáin, Global Research, 22 January 2010
  18. Danticat, Edwidge. Anacaona, Golden Flower. New York: Scholastic Inc. (2005). p. 188. ISBN 0-439-49906-2. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  19. Matthewson, Tim. "Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Vol 140 No. 1". American Philosophical Society. p. 22. ISSN 0003-049X. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  20. Bell, Madison Smartt. Toussaint L'Ouverture: A Biography. New York: Pantheon, 2007 (Vintage Books, 2008). ISBN 1-4000-7935-7.
  21. Sutherland, Claudia E. Haitian Revolution (1791–1804). Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  22. Peguero, Valentina. "The History Teacher Vol. 32, No. 1 (Nov., 1998)". Society for History Education. p. 36. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  23. Thompson, Krista A. "American Art Vol. 21, No. 3 (Fall 2007)". The University of Chicago Press (on the behalf of the Smithsonian American Art Museum). p. 77. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  24. "Country profile: Haiti". BBC News. 19 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
  25. HAITIAN MONUMENT OUTLINE, Haitian History
  26. 1 2 3 "Reading Eagle – Google News Archive Search". Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  27. Naeesa Aziz (7 February 2012). "Haiti to Join African Union". BET. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  28. Guitar, Lynne; Ferbel-Azcárate, Pedro; Estevez, Jorge (2006). "iii: Ocama-Daca Taíno (Hear me, I am Taíno)". Indigenous Resurgence in the Contemporary Caribbean. New York: Peter Lang Publishing. p. 41. ISBN 0-8204-7488-6. LCCN 2005012816. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
  29. Edmond, Louisket (2010). The Tears of Haiti. Xlibris. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-4535-1770-3. LCCN 2010908468. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
  30. Senauth, Frank (2011). The Making and Destruction of Haiti. Bloomington, Indiana, USA: AuthorHouse. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4567-5384-9. LCCN 2011907203.
  31. Haydn, Joseph; Vincent, Benjamin (1860). "A Dictionary of Dates Relating to All Ages and Nations: For Universal Reference Comprehending Remarkable Occurrences, Ancient and Modern, The Foundation, Laws, and Governments of Countries-Their Progress In Civilization, Industry, Arts and Science-Their Achievements In Arms-And Their Civil, Military, And Religious Institutions, And Particularly of the British Empire". p. 321. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
  32. Stein, Gail (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Learning French. Alpha Books. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-59257-055-3.
  33. "How to Say: Haiti and Port-au-Prince". BBC. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
  34. Martineau, Harriet (2010). "The Hour and the Man: A Fictional Account of the Haitian Revolution and the life of Toussaint L'Ouverture". p. 12. ISBN 9789990411676. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
  35. Eldin, F. (1878). "Haïti, 13 ans de séjour aux Antilles" (in French). p. 33. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
  36. "Haiti, the First Black Republic". library.flawlesslogic.com. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
  37. "Dominican Republic 2015". Retrieved 1 May 2015.
  38. 1 2 Royal, Robert (Spring 1992). "1492 and Multiculturalism". The Intercollegiate Review 27 (2): 3–10. Archived from the original on 16 February 2009.
  39. Cassá, Roberto (1992). Los Indios de Las Antillas. Editorial Abya Yala. pp. 126–. ISBN 978-84-7100-375-1.
  40. Wilson, Samuel M. (1990). Hispaniola: Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age of Columbus. University of Alabama Press. p. 110. ISBN 0-8173-0462-2.
  41. Ober, Frederick Albion, ed. (1906). "Columbus the Discoverer". Harper & Brothers Publishers New York and London. p. 96. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  42. "What Became of the Taíno?". Smithsonian. October 2011.
  43. Koplow, David A. (2004). Smallpox: The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24220-3.
  44. "History of Smallpox – Smallpox Through the Ages". Texas Department of State Health Services. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  45. Graves, Kerry A. (2002). Haiti. Capstone. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-7368-1078-4.
  46. "Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513". Faculty.smu.edu. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  47. "Encomienda (Spanish policy)". Britannica.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  48. "Dominican Republic – The first colony". Country Studies. Library of Congress; Federal Research Division. Retrieved 19 June 2008.
  49. "Immigration History of Canada". Faculty.marianopolis.edu. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  50. 1 2 Farmer, Paul (15 April 2004). "Who removed Aristide?". Archived from the original on 6 June 2008. Retrieved 19 February 2010.
  51. Kiple, Kenneth F. (2002). The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History. Cambridge University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-521-52470-9.
  52. "Decree of the National Convention of 4 February 1794, Abolishing Slavery in all the Colonies". Chnm.gmu.edu. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  53. "1784–1800 – The United States and the Haitian Revolution". History.state.gov. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  54. Joseph, Raymond A. (22 March 1987). "Poles in Haiti". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  55. Corbett, Bob. "The Haitian Revolution of 1791–1803". Webster University.
  56. Smucker, Glenn R. (December 1989). Richard A. Haggerty, ed. A Country Study: Haiti. Library of Congress Federal Research Division. Toussaint Louverture.
  57. Flora Frasier (2009). Venus of Empire:The Life of Pauline Bonaparte. John Murray.
  58. "The Haitian Debacle: Yellow Fever and the Fate of the French". Montana State University. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  59. Adam Hochschild (30 May 2004). "Birth of a Nation / Has the bloody 200-year history of Haiti doomed it to more violence?". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  60. ""A Brief History of Dessalines", 1825 Missionary Journal". Webster University. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  61. Constitution of Haiti [ [sic]] New-York Evening Post 15 July 1805.
  62. Monthly Magazine and British Register. XLVIII. R. Phillips. 1819. p. 335.
  63. Boyce Davies, Carole (2008). Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. A-C. Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 380. ISBN 978-1-85109-700-5.
  64. Sontag, Deborah. "News about Haiti, including commentary and archival articles published in The New York Times.". topics.nytimes.com. NEWS. Retrieved 2015.
  65. "From Saint-Domingue to Louisiana, The African-American Migration Experience". Inmotionaame.org. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  66. "In Congo Square: Colonial New Orleans". Thenation.com. 10 December 2008. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  67. "Haitians". Center for Cultural & Eco-Tourism, University of Louisiana. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  68. "Henri Christophe: Biography". Answers.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  69. David Bushnell and Lester Langley, ed. (2008). Simón Bolívar: essays on the life and legacy of the liberator. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 5. ISBN 0-7425-5619-0.
  70. Ernesto Sagás (14 October 1994). "An apparent contradiction? Popular perceptions of Haiti and the foreign policy of the Dominican Republic". Sixth Annual Conference of the Haitian Studies Association. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
  71. "Dominican Republic – History". Britannica.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  72. "Jean-Pierre Boyer (President of Haiti)". Britannica.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  73. Bob Corbett (July 1995). "1820 – 1843: The rule of Jean-Pierre Boyer". Webster University. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  74. Girard Alphonse Firire (27 August 1999). "Haiti And Its Diaspora: New Historical, Cultural And Economic Frontiers, reprint from ''US Gazette'' Philadelphia, 1824". Webster.edu. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  75. 1 2 Farmer, Paul and Kozol, Jonathan (2006). The uses of Haiti (3 ed.). Common Courage Press. p. 74. ISBN 1-56751-344-1.
  76. Henl, pp. 454–455.
  77. Angulo, A. J. (2010). "Education During the American Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934". Historical Studies in Education 22 (2): 1–17. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  78. Munro, Dana G. "The American Withdrawal from Haiti, 1929–1934". The Hispanic American Historical Review 49 (1). doi:10.2307/2511314.
  79. Renda, Mary A. (2000). Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4938-3.
  80. 1 2 Farmer, Paul (2006). AIDS and Accusation: Haiti and the Geography of Blame. California University Press. pp. 180–181. ISBN 978-0-520-24839-7.
  81. Michele Wucker. "Why the Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians and the Struggle for Hispaniola". Windows on Haiti. Retrieved 26 December 2007.
  82. Raymond, Prospery (26 July 2013). "Tourism can help Haiti return to its halcyon days". London: guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
  83. 1 2 3 Clammer, Paul (1 February 2014). "Is Haiti The Caribbean's Best New Destination?". Huffington Post. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  84. Bryan, Patrick E. (1984). The Haitian Revolution and Its Effects. Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-435-98301-7.
  85. "François Duvalier". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  86. Showker, Kay (1999). Northern and Northeastern Regions. Globe Pequot Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-7627-0547-4.
  87. "US Embassy to Haiti website". Haiti.org. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  88. The Carter Center. "Activities by Country: Haiti". Retrieved 19 February 2010.
  89. Catherine S. Manegol (16 October 1994). "For Aristide's Followers, Every Step Is a Dance, Every Cheer a Song". Nytimes.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  90. Hallward, P. (2007). Damming the Flood:Haiti, Aristide, and the Politics of containment. London, UK: Verso Books. pp. xiii, 78–79.
  91. Buss, Terry F.; Gardner, Adam (2009). Haiti in the Balance: Why Foreign Aid Has Failed and What We Can Do about It. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 0-8157-0164-0.
  92. "Aristide Kidnapped by US Forces?". Globalpolicy.org. 1 March 2004. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  93. "Exclusive: Aristide and His Bodyguard Describe the U.S. Role In His Ouster". Democracynow.org. 16 March 2004. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  94. "Haiti: WikiLeaks Cables Expose How U.S. Blocked Aristide's Return After 2004 Coup". Democracynow.org. 11 August 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  95. "Photo Gallery: Jeanne hits Haiti". Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
  96. "UN seeks almost US$108 million for Haiti floods". USA Today. 10 September 2008. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  97. "Haiti's government falls after food riots". Reuters. 12 April 2008. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
  98. "Magnitude 7.0 – Haiti Region". Retrieved 12 January 2010.
  99. Randal C. Archibold (13 January 2011). "Haiti: Quake's Toll Rises to 316,000". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  100. "Report challenges Haiti earthquake death toll". BBC News. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
  101. Sontag, Deborah. "In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic". www.nytimes.com (The New York Times). Retrieved 21 June 2015.
  102. "A year of indecision leaves Haiti recovery at a standstill". Oxfam.org. 6 January 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  103. "Haiti – Inauguration : Michel Martelly, 56th President of Haiti". Haitilibre.com. 14 May 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  104. Robles, Frances (7 February 2016). "Michel Martelly, Haiti’s President, Departs Without a Successor". News report. New York Times. Retrieved 7 February 2016.
  105. "Slavery reparations: Blood money". The Economist. 5 October 2013.
  106. Anthony Gifford, Lord (2012). "Formulating the Case for reparations". Colonialism, Slavery, Reparations and Trade: Remedying the'Past'? Routledge: 96.
  107. "Geography: Haiti". Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  108. "Geography: Haiti". Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  109. "Map of Haiti". Elahmad.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  110. Larry Rohter (19 October 1998). "Whose Rock Is It? Yes, the Haitians Care". Port-au-Prince Journal (reprinted in New York Times). Retrieved 28 January 2012.
  111. ""Magnitude 7.0 – HAITI REGION Tectonic Summary" United States Geological Survey, 12 January 2010". Earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
  112. Hayes, G.P.; Briggs R.W., Sladen A., Fielding E.J., Prentice C., Hudnut K., Mann P., Taylor F.W., Crone A.J., Gold R., Ito T. & Simons M. (2010). "Complex rupture during the 12 January 2010 Haiti earthquake". Nature Geoscience 3 (11): 800–805. Bibcode:2010NatGe...3..800H. doi:10.1038/ngeo977. Archived from the original on 23 October 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2010. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
  113. DeMets, C.; Wiggins-Grandison W. (2007). "Deformation of Jamaica and motion of the Gonâve microplate from GPS and seismic data" (PDF). Geophysical Journal International 168: 362–378. Bibcode:2007GeoJI.168..362D. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.03236.x. Retrieved 19 December 2009.
  114. Mann, Paul, Calais, Eric, Demets, Chuck, Prentice, Carol S, and Wiggins-Grandison, Margaret (March 2008). "Entiquillo-Plantain Garden Strike-Slip Fault Zone: A Major Seismic Hazard Affecting Dominican Republic, Haiti and Jamaica". 18th Caribbean Geological Conference. Archived from the original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
  115. Delacroix, Phoenix (25 September 2008). "Haiti/ Menace de Catastrope Naturelle / Risque sismique élevé sur Port-au-Prince". Archived from the original on 17 January 2010. Retrieved 12 January 2010.
  116. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE USAID/HAITI NORTH PARK POWER PROJECT. United States Agency for International Development. ute.gouv.ht. June 2011
  117. "Deforestation Exacerbates Haiti Floods". Usatoday.com. 23 September 2004. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  118. "Reforestation". The Lambi Fund of Haiti. The Lambi Fund of Haiti. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
  119. "Environment and Natural Hazards | The Haiti Regeneration Initiative". Wayback.archive.org. 3 March 2011. Archived from the original on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
  120. "Forestry in Haiti". Retrieved 16 February 2010.
  121. "1987 Constitution of the Republic of Haiti". ARTICLE 134: Georgetown University. pp. ARTICLE 134. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
  122. 1 2 Daniel, Trenton (8 July 2013). "Haiti hopes push to woo tourists pays off". The Burlington Free Press (Burlington, Vermont). pp. 5A. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
  123. Michele Kelemen (2 March 2004). "Haiti Starts Over, Once Again". Npr.org. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  124. Bell, Beverly (2013). Fault Lines: Views across Haiti's Divide. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 30–38. ISBN 978-0-8014-7769-0.
  125. "2006 Corruption Perceptions Index reinforces link between poverty and corruption". Transparency International. 6 November 2006. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
  126. "Hoping for change in Haiti's Cité-Soleil". International Red Cross. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
  127. Fry, Ted (10 August 2007). ""Ghosts of Cité Soleil" a harrowing look at Haiti's hellish slums". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  128. Varner, Bill (25 August 2005). "Haitian Gangs Seek Truce That Would Ease Elections". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  129. Buschschluter, Vanessa (16 January 2010). "The long history of troubled ties between Haiti and the US". BBC News. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  130. Ginger Thompson (19 January 2011). "Aristide Says He Is Ready to Follow Duvalier Back to Haiti". The New York Times.
  131. "Haiti Unrest". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 12 November 2010.
  132. Charles, Jacqueline (10 May 2012). "'Sweet Micky' Martelly reportedly wins Haiti election". Flcourier.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  133. "Haiti becomes a member of the African Union". Haitilibre.com. 2 February 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  134. Sampson, Ovetta (29 February 2012). "Long distance relationship: Haiti's bid to join the African Union". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
  135. Sadowski, Dennis (6–19 August 2010). "Hope and struggles remain in Haiti six months after earthquake". Orlando, Florida: Florida Catholic. pp. A7.
  136. "Haitian Law". Jurist.law.pitt.edu. Archived from the original on 30 June 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  137. "Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National". Haiti.org. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  138. "Ministres – Primature République d'Haiti". primature.gouv.ht. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  139. Usaid’s Leadership In Public Financial Management. 2013 Program on Cost-Benefit Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. Queen’s University Final Report. 2 August 2013
  140. Martino, John (2013). Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013. CQ Press. p. 697. ISBN 978-1-4522-9937-2.
  141. "Missions et Attributions du Ministère de la Défense". Ministere de la Defense. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  142. "Haiti a step closer to having army again". USA Today. 16 September 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
  143. MINUSTAH (ed.). "Recrutement de la PNH : mode d’emploi (Recruitment HNP: manual)". Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  144. "Haiti tops world corruption table". BBC News. 6 November 2006. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  145. Siri Schubert (22 May 2009). "Haiti: The Long Road to Recovery, Public Broadcasting Service". Pbs.org. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  146. "Aristide Development". American Spectator 27 (7). 1 July 1994.
  147. "Rapport UCREF" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2006. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  148. "Probe of Aristide administration finds evidence of embezzlement". Dominican Today. 31 October 2005.
  149. Mary Anastasia O'Grady (12 February 2007). "The Haiti File". Online.wsj.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  150. Nick Caistor (19 March 2004). "Haiti's drug money scourge". BBC.
  151. Schifferes, Steve (1 March 2004). "Haiti: An economic basket-case". BBC News. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  152. "Some 437,000 people murdered worldwide in 2012, according to new UNODC study". Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  153. "Global Study on Homicide" (PDF). UNODC. 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  154. Caribbean News Now, ed. (7 January 2013). "Haiti among safest destinations in the Americas, say recent studies". Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  155. Luxner, Larry, ed. (22 June 2013). "Haiti earthquake fails to deter hotel boom". Baltimore Post-Examiner. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  156. USA Today, ed. (17 November 2014). "NYPD officers train Haitian police". Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  157. Weiss, Murray, ed. (21 January 2011). "NYPD to help train Haitian police". New York Post. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  158. 1 2 "Haiti: governance, Rule of Law, and Security". USAID. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  159. Olivier, Louis-Joseph, ed. (14 August 2015). "Création de cinq nouvelles communes par décret présidentiel". Le Nouvelliste. Retrieved 17 March 2016. (French)
  160. Press, ed. (16 August 2015). "Haïti - Politique : 5 nouvelles communes en Haïti". Haiti Libre. Retrieved 17 March 2016.
  161. "7300.- Divisions territoriales". Haiti-Référence. 17 August 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2016. (French)
  162. "International Human Development Indicators: Haiti". 2008 data in 2010 Report. United Nations Development Programme. 2010. Archived from the original on 3 March 2011.
  163. "Jean Bertrand Aristide net worth". WOW509.
  164. Farah Stockman (7 March 2004). "Before fall of Aristide, Haiti hit by aid cutoff by". Boston.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  165. "Haiti: Economy". Michigan State University.
  166. "Haiti: Enhanced Initiative for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries" (PDF). International Monetary Fund. September 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  167. "Haiti Economy" (PDF). Retrieved 11 April 2015.
  168. Anastasia Moloney (28 September 2009). "Haiti's aid controversy". Thomson Reuters Foundation. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  169. Christopher Marquis (21 July 2004). "$1 Billion Is Pledged to Help Haiti Rebuild, Topping Request". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  170. Katz, Jonathan M. (11 April 2010). "Haiti's police struggle to control ravaged capital". Fox News. Associated Press.
  171. "Haiti fears grows despite surge in relief effort". Yahoo! News. 18 January 2009. Archived from the original on 26 October 2014.
  172. "UN Office of the Special Envoy for Haiti Key Facts as of March 2012." (PDF).
  173. "Haiti". Retrieved 11 April 2015.
  174. "What does Haiti have to show for the US$13 billion in earthquake aid?-NBC News.com". January 2015.
  175. "Recycling helps clean up Haiti, create new income – Business – The Boston Globe". BostonGlobe.com. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  176. "The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 24 May 2015.
  177. 1 2 Watkins, Tate. "How Haiti's Future Depends on American Markets". The Atlantic. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  178. "Powering Haiti with Clean Energy".
  179. "The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 24 May 2015.
  180. "Latin America Shouldn't Bet Everything On Remittances". World Bank. 31 October 2006. Archived from the original on 3 March 2011.
  181. 1 2 "Extreme poverty drops in Haiti. Is it sustainable?". Worldbank.org. 11 December 2014. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
  182. CIA World Factbook, Haiti entry, accessed 1 June 2012.
  183. 1 2 Gagnon-Joseph, Nathalie (22 December 2015). "On sports, treasure hunting, and life". The Chronicle (Barton, Vermont). pp. 28A, 29A.
  184. International Trade Centre, International Trade Forum (ed.). "Frager, Haiti: shortening the perfume chain to become world number one". Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  185. The Guardian (ed.). "Perfume manufacturers must cope with the scarcity of precious supplies". Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  186. Adams, David (24 April 2014). "FEATURE-Perfumers promote fair trade for Haiti's 'super-crop'". Reuters UK. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  187. 1 2 "Feeding Haiti: A new menu". The Economist. 22 June 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  188. 1 2 "Environmental Accessment of the USAID/Haiti North Park Power Project" (PDF). USAID. 2011. p. 23. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  189. Index Mundi: Haiti Economy Profile 2014
  190. "All About Money: Gourdes, Dollars and Sense for Work and Life in Haiti" (PDF). haitihub.com. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
  191. "Haiti Travel Warning". Bureau of Consular Affairs. Archived from the original on 2013-10-28. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
  192. "Best Western International targets 120 new hotel projects in 2013". Traveldailynews.com. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
  193. Major, Brian, ed. (9 December 2014). "Dispatch: Good Times in Haiti". Travel Pulse. Retrieved 29 August 2015.
  194. Charles, Jacqueline. "Petionville: Haiti gets new luxury hotel". MiamiHerald.com. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  195. with Barbara De Lollis (29 November 2011). "Marriott announces first hotel in Haiti". Travel.usatoday.com. Archived from the original on 26 June 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  196. 1 2 "More than 300,000 people celebrated the Carnival 2012 in Les Cayes". Haitilibre.com. 22 February 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  197. DeGennaro, Dr. Vincent. "Global Doc: Kanaval". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
  198. 1 2 "Clintons land in Haiti to showcase industrial park". USA Today. 22 October 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
  199. "Clintons preside at star-studded opening of Haitian industrial park". Reuters.com. 22 October 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  200. "State Dept. Fact Sheet on Haiti's Caracol Industrial Park". US Policy. 22 October 2012. Archived from the original on 20 June 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  201. "Caracol Industrial Park". USAID. 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  202. Hedgpeth, Dana (23 January 2010). "Haiti's Bad Roads not Damaged by Quake, Army Engineers Say". Washington Post. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  203. "Haiti – Tourism : Official launch of project "Tourist destination Ile-à-Vache" – HaitiLibre.com : Haiti news 7/7". HaitiLibre.com.
  204. "Tap-Tap". Retrieved 29 January 2014.
  205. "UN Volunteer takes part in art exhibition in Germany". Retrieved 29 January 2014.
  206. "Haiti – Economy : Presentation of the first Bus prototype Made in Haiti". Retrieved 29 January 2014.
  207. "NRI Overall Ranking 2014" (PDF). World Economic Forum. Retrieved 28 June 2014.
  208. "Country profile: Haiti". BBC News. 17 October 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  209. "New Haiti Census Shows Drastic Lack of Jobs, Education, Maternal Health Services". United Nations Population Fund. 10 May 2006. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  210. "Haiti – Population". Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  211. "Aimaq, Firozkohi of Afghanistan Ethnic People Profile". Joshua Project. Retrieved 14 January 2010.
  212. "The Virtual Jewish History Tour: Haiti". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 14 January 2010.
  213. American FactFinder – Results
  214. Pina, Diógenes (21 March 2007). "DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Deport Thy (Darker-Skinned) Neighbour". Inter Press Service (IPS). Archived from the original on 2009-02-15. Retrieved 14 October 2008.
  215. Haiti in Cuba Retrieved 30 December 2013.
  216. Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories – 20% sample data at the Wayback Machine (archived 5 December 2008), Statistics Canada (2006).
  217. "France Suspends Expulsions Of Illegal Haitians". Gulfnews.com. 14 January 2010. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  218. Davis, Nick (20 September 2009). "Bahamas outlook clouds for Haitians". BBC News. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  219. Simms, Tanya M.; Rodríguez, Carol E.; Rodríguez, Rosa; Herrera, René J. (May 2010). "The genetic structure of populations from Haiti and Jamaica reflect divergent demographic histories". Am J Phys Anthropol: 63. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21194. PMID 19918989. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
  220. 1 2 Simms, Tanya M.; Rodríguez, Carol E.; Rodríguez, Rosa; Herrera, René J. (May 2010). "The genetic structure of populations from Haiti and Jamaica reflect divergent demographic histories". Am J Phys Anthropol: 50. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21194. PMID 19918989. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
  221. 1 2 3 Simms, TM; Wright, MR; Hernandez, M; Perez, OA; Ramirez, EC; Martinez, E; Herrera, RJ (11 May 2012). "Y-chromosomal diversity in Haiti and Jamaica: contrasting levels of sex-biased gene flow.". Am J Phys Anthropol. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22090. PMID 22576450. </
  222. Grann, VR.; Ziv, E.; Joseph, CK.; Neugut, AI.; Wei, Y.; Jacobson, JS.; Horwitz, MS.; Bowman, M.; Beckman, K.; Hershman, DL. (2009). "Duffy (fy), DARC and neutropenia among women from the United States, Europe and the Caribbean". British Journal of Haematology. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141. Retrieved 7 June 2015.
  223. Smucker, Glenn R (December 1989). Richard A. Haggerty, ed. "A Country Study: Haiti; The Upper Class". Library of Congress Federal Research Division.
  224. Rey, Terry; Stepick, Alex (2013). Crossing the Water and Keeping the Faith: Haitian Religion in Miami. NYU Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4798-2077-1. With no indications of any subsequent decline in Protestant affiliation either in Port-au-Prince or the countryside, one could reasonably estimate that today Haiti is already more than one-third Protestant
  225. Blier, Suzanne Preston (1995). "Vodun: West African Roots of Vodou". In Donald J., Cosentino. Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou. Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History. pp. 61–87. ISBN 0-930741-47-1.
  226. McAlister, Elizabeth (1998). "The Madonna of 115th St. Revisited: Vodou and Haitian Catholicism in the Age of Transnationalism". In S. Warner, ed., Gatherings in Diaspora. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press ISBN 1-56639-614-X. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  227. La langue française dans le monde 2014 (PDF). Nathan. 2014. ISBN 978-2-09-882654-0. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
  228. À ce propos, voir l'essai Prétendus Créolismes : le couteau dans l'igname, Jean-Robert Léonidas, Cidihca, Montréal 1995
  229. Valdman, Albert. "Creole: The National Language of Haiti". Footsteps (Indiana University Creole Institute) 2 (4): 36–39.
  230. "creolenationallanguageofhaiti". Indiana University. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
  231. Bonenfant, Jacques L. (December 1989). Haggerty, Richard A., ed. "History of Haitian-Creole: From Pidgin to Lingua Franca and English Influence on the Language" (PDF). Library of Congress Federal Research Division.
  232. 1 2 Kinzie 1856, p. 190
  233. 1 2 Meehan 1963, p. 445
  234. 1 2 Cohn, Scotti (2009). It Happened in Chicago. Globe Pequot. pp. 2–4. ISBN 0-7627-5056-1.
  235. Lewis, p. 18.
  236. 1 2 >Yurnet-Thomas, Mirta (2002). A Taste of Haiti. pp. 13–15. ISBN 0781809983. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
  237. 1 2 "Haitians". Retrieved 2 September 2014.
  238. Onofre, Alejandro Guevara. "Haiti – Culture And Sports". Retrieved 2 September 2014.
  239. Legro, Tom (11 January 2011). "In Haiti, Art Remains a Solid Cornerstone".
  240. "Music and the Story of Haiti". Afropop Worldwide. Archived from the original on 13 November 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  241. "Haitian music billboard". Web.archive.org. 10 February 2010. Archived from the original on 10 February 2010. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  242. Averill, Gage (1997). A Day for the Hunter, a Day for the Prey: Popular Music and Power in Haiti. p. 23. ISBN 0226032914. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  243. "Haitian Literature – an introduction". Retrieved 2 September 2014.
  244. 1 2 Chery, Rene (2011). Women and Children's Tribulation In Haiti. Xlibris Corporation. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-4628-8814-6.
  245. "Haitian Recipes ::". haitian-recipes.com.
  246. "Pumpkin Soup – Soup Joumou". Creolemadeeasy.com. Archived from the original on 2014-05-21. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  247. "National History Park – Citadel, Sans the great Souci, Ramiers". UNESCO.org. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
  248. 1 2 "Heritage in Haiti". UNESCO.org. 20 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
  249. "MUPANAH and the Promotion of Historical and Cultural Values – Paret – 2011 – Museum International – Wiley Online Library". Onlinelibrary.wiley.com. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
  250. Munro, Martin (2013). Exile and Post-1946 Haitian Literature: Alexis, Depestre, Ollivier, Laferrière, Danticat. Liverpool University Press. pp. 14–. ISBN 978-1-84631-854-2.
  251. "Origins of the Haitian Flag". Retrieved 28 June 2013.
  252. 1 2 Arthur, Charles. Haiti in Focus: A Guide to the People, Politics, and Culture. Interlink Pub Group Inc. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-1-56656-359-8.
  253. "History of Caribbean teams in the FIFA World Cup". Retrieved 2 September 2014.
  254. Ewen MacAskill. "World Cup 2010: How the USA's 1950 amateurs upset England and the odds". the Guardian. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  255. Clark, George P. (1980). "The Role of the Haitian Volunteers at Savannah in 1779: An Attempt at an Objective View". Phylon 41 (4): 356–366. doi:10.2307/274860. JSTOR 274860.
  256. Winston Groom (August 2006). "Saving New Orleans". Smithsonianmag.com. Archived from the original on 19 July 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  257. Søresen, Dorte Hygum (4 May 2013). "Jørgen Leth: Jeg stopper, når jeg styrter" [Jørgen Leth: "I stop when I rush"]. Politiken (in Danish). Retrieved 20 October 2013.
  258. "Sean Penn's home and life in Haiti". CBS News. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
  259. "Ministry of Education". Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  260. "Education in Haiti; Primary Education". Archived from the original on 23 March 2008. Retrieved 15 November 2007.
  261. "Education: Overview". United States Agency for International Development. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  262. "Haiti boosts health and education in the past decade, says new UNDP report". United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
  263. "Haiti's Lost Children". Haitiedstories.org. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  264. Paul Franz, for the Pulitzer Center, Port-au-Prince, Haiti (25 October 2010). "Improving Access to Education in Haiti". Pulitzercenter.org. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  265. "Haiti". Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  266. "Haiti to vaccinate 95 percent of children under 10 - KSL.com". Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  267. Vaccination Coverage Among Children in Kindergarten — United States, 2013–14 School Year
  268. CDC Global Health – Stories – 5 things CDC has done to help rebuild Haiti’s immunization system since the 2010 earthquake
  269. "Haiti Survivors Face Outbreaks of Diarrhea". BusinessWeek. 14 January 2010. Archived from the original on 22 July 2015.
  270. Madison Park, CNN (13 January 2010). "Haiti earthquake could trigger possible medical 'perfect storm". cnn.com. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
  271. Leahy, Stephen (13 November 2008). "Haiti Can't Face More Defeats". Ipsnews.net. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  272. "The HIV epidemic in the Caribbean: meeting the challenges of achieving universal access to prevention, treatment and care", West Indian Medical Journal, J. P. Figueroa, 57(3), 2008
  273. Pike, John (30 July 2003). "Haiti Introduction". Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  274. "Haiti and Dominican Republic Look to Eradicate Malaria". Foxnews.com. 8 October 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  275. Robert Lee Hadden and Steven G. Minson (2010). "The Geology of Haiti: An Annotated Bibliography of Haiti's Geology, Geography and Earth Science". p. 10. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
  276. Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) | Data | Table

Further reading

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Haiti.

External links

Government
General information
Maps
History
Relief organizations
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Friday, May 06, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.