Indigenous peoples of the Americas

"Indian nation" redirects here. For the country, see India. For Indian nationality, see Indian people.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Total population
Approximately 60.5 million
Regions with significant populations
 Mexico 25,694,928
 Peru 13.8 million[1]
 Bolivia 6.0 million[2]
 Guatemala 5.8 million[3]
 Ecuador 3.4 million
 United States 2.9–5 million[4]
 Chile 1.8 million[5]
 Canada 1.4 million[6]
 Colombia 1.4 million[7]
 Argentina 955,032[8]
 Brazil 817,963[9]
 Venezuela 524,000[10]
 Honduras 520,000[11]
 Nicaragua 443,847[12]
 Panama 204,000[13]
 Paraguay 95,235[14]
 El Salvador c. 70,000[15]
 Costa Rica c. 114,000[16]
 Guyana c. 60,000[17]
 Greenland c. 51,000[18]
 Belize c. 24,501 (Maya)[19]
 French Guiana c. 19,000[20]
 Suriname c. 12,000–24,000
Languages
Indigenous languages of the Americas, English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Danish, Dutch
Religion

The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the descendants of the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas. Pueblos indígenas (indigenous peoples) is a common term in Spanish-speaking countries. Aborigen (aboriginal/native) is used in Argentina, whereas "Amerindian" is used in Quebec, The Guianas, and the English-speaking Caribbean.[21][22][23][24] Indigenous peoples are commonly known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, which include First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples.[25] Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives.[26]

According to the prevailing theories of the settlement of the Americas, migrations of humans from Asia (in particular North Asia)[27][28] to the Americas took place via Beringia, a land bridge which connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. The majority of experts agree that the earliest pre-modern human migration via Beringia took place at least 13,500 years ago, with disputed evidence that people had migrated into the Americas much earlier, up to 40,000 years ago.[29] These early Paleo-Indians spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there since their genesis, described by a wide range of creation myths.

Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies.[30][31][32][33][34][35] The Americas came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the names "Indies" and "Indian", which implied some kind of racial or cultural unity among the aboriginal peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion, and politics, was not originally accepted by indigenous peoples but has been embraced by many over the last two centuries. Even though the term "Indian" does not include the Aleuts, Inuit, or Yupik peoples, these groups are considered indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in Amazonia, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas.[36] Although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires.

Quechua women in Peru

Many parts of the Americas are still populated by indigenous peoples; some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. At least a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, and Nahuatl, count their speakers in millions. Many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, but also cater to modern needs. Some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples.

History

Migration into the continents

For more details on theories of the migrations of the Paleo-Indians, see settlement of the Americas.

The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, provide the subject of ongoing research and discussion.[38][39] According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation.[38] During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the land bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to north west North America (Alaska).[40][41] Alaska was a glacial refugia because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist. The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years.[42][43]

Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia.[44][45] The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years.[46][47][48] Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond.[39][49][50] These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets.[51]

Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to South America.[52] Evidence of the latter would have been covered by a sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age.[53]

The time range of 40,000–16,500 years ago is debatable and probably will remain so for years to come.[38][39] The few agreements achieved to date include:[29][54]

The Clovis culture, the earliest definitively-dated Paleo-Indians in the Americas, appears around 11,500 RCBP (radiocarbon years Before Present[55]), equivalent to 13,500 to 13,000 calendar years ago.

Anzick site

In 2014, the autosomal DNA of a 12,500+-year-old infant from Montana found in close association with several Clovis artifacts was sequenced.[56] These are the Anzick-1 remains from the Anzick Clovis burial in Montana.

The data indicate that the individual was from a population directly ancestral to present South American and Central American Native American populations, and closely related to present North American Native American populations. The implication is that there was an early divergence between North American and Central American plus South American populations. Hypotheses which posit that invasions subsequent to the Clovis culture overwhelmed or assimilated previous migrants into the Americas were ruled out.[56]

Naia skeleton

Similarly, the skeleton of a teenage girl (named 'Naia', after a water nymph from Greek mythology) found in the underwater caves called sistema Sac Actun in Mexico's eastern Yucatán Peninsula in 2007 has had DNA extracted, and at 13,000 years old is considered the oldest genetically intact human skeleton ever found in the Americas. The DNA indicates she was from a lineage derived from Asian origins that is represented in the modern native population's DNA.[57]

Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest human activity in the Americas. Crafted lithic flaked tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods.[58]

Pre-Columbian era

Main article: Pre-Columbian era
Language families of North American indigenous peoples

The Pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European and African influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original arrival in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the early modern period.[59]

While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until Europeans either conquered or significantly influenced them, even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus' initial landing.[60] "Pre-Columbian" is used especially often in the context of discussing the great indigenous civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacano, the Zapotec, the Mixtec, the Aztec, and the Maya civilizations) and those of the Andes (Inca Empire, Moche culture, Muisca Confederation, Cañaris).

Ethnic groups circa 1300-1535

Many pre-Columbian civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks which included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies.[61] Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first significant European and African arrivals (ca. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through oral history and through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Mayan, Olmec, Mixtec, and Nahua peoples, had their own written records. However, the European colonists of the time worked to eliminate non-Christian beliefs, and Christian pyres destroyed many pre-Columbian written records. Only a few documents remained hidden and survived, leaving contemporary historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge.

According to both indigenous American and European accounts and documents, American civilizations at the time of European encounter had achieved many accomplishments.[62] For instance, the Aztecs built one of the largest cities in the world, Tenochtitlan, the ancient site of Mexico City, with an estimated population of 200,000. American civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics. The domestication of maize or corn required thousands of years of selective breeding.

Inuit, Alaskan Native, and American Indian creation myths tell of a variety of origins of their respective peoples. Some were "always there" or were created by gods or animals, some migrated from a specified compass point, and others came from "across the ocean".[63]

European colonization

Cultural areas of North America at time of European contact

The European colonization of the Americas forever changed the lives and cultures of the peoples of the continents. Although the exact pre-contact population of the Americas is unknown, scholars estimate that Native American populations diminished by between 80 and 90% within the first centuries of contact with Europeans. The leading cause was disease. The continent was ravaged by epidemics of diseases such as smallpox, measles, and cholera, which were brought from Europe by the early explorers and spread quickly into new areas even before later explorers and colonists reached them. Native Americans suffered high mortality rates due to their lack of prior exposure to these diseases. The loss of lives was exacerbated by conflict between colonists and indigenous people. Colonists also frequently perpetrated massacres on the indigenous groups and enslaved them.[64][65][66] According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the North American Indian Wars of the 19th century cost the lives of about 19,000 whites and 30,000 Native Americans.[67]

The first indigenous group encountered by Columbus were the 250,000 Taínos of Hispaniola who represented the dominant culture in the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. Within thirty years about 70% of the Taínos had died.[68] They had no immunity to European diseases, so outbreaks of measles and smallpox ravaged their population.[69] Increasing punishment of the Taínos for revolting against forced labour, despite measures put in place by the encomienda, which included religious education and protection from warring tribes,[70] eventually led to the last great Taíno rebellion.

Following years of mistreatment, the Taínos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or killing their infants and men jumping from the cliffs or ingesting untreated cassava, a violent poison.[68] Eventually, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo managed to hold out in the Baoruco Mountain Range for thirteen years, causing serious damage to the Spanish, Carib-held plantations and their Indian auxiliaries.[71] Hearing of the seriousness of the revolt, Emperor Charles V (also King of Spain) sent captain Francisco Barrionuevo to negotiate a peace treaty with the ever-increasing number of rebels. Two months later, after consultation with the Audencia of Santo Domingo, Enriquillo was offered any part of the island to live in peace.

The Laws of Burgos, 1512-1513, were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in America, particularly with regard to native Indians. The laws forbade the maltreatment of natives and endorsed their conversion to Catholicism.[72] The Spanish crown found it difficult to enforce these laws in a distant colony.

Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585), showing Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico suffering from smallpox

Various theories for the decline of the Native American populations emphasize epidemic diseases, conflicts with Europeans, and conflicts among warring tribes. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives.[73][74] Some believe that after first contacts with Europeans and Africans, Old World diseases caused the death of 90 to 95% of the native population of the New World in the following 150 years.[75] Smallpox killed up to one third of the native population of Hispaniola in 1518.[76] By killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac, smallpox caused the Inca Civil War. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618—all ravaged the remains of Inca culture.

Smallpox had killed millions of native inhabitants of Mexico.[77][78] Unintentionally introduced at Veracruz with the arrival of Pánfilo de Narváez on April 23, 1520, smallpox ravaged Mexico in the 1520s,[79] possibly killing over 150,000 in Tenochtitlán alone (the heartland of the Aztec Empire), and aiding in the victory of Hernán Cortés over the Aztec Empire at Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) in 1521.

Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous Americans had no immunity.[80]

Explorations of the Caribbean led to the discovery of the Arawaks of the Lesser Antilles. The culture was destroyed by 1650. Only 500 had survived by the year 1550, though the bloodlines continued through to the modern populace. In Amazonia, indigenous societies weathered centuries of colonization.[81]

Indians visiting a Brazilian farm plantation in Minas Gerais ca. 1824

Contact with European diseases such as smallpox and measles killed between 50 and 67 per cent of the Aboriginal population of North America in the first hundred years after the arrival of Europeans.[82] Some 90 per cent of the native population near Massachusetts Bay Colony died of smallpox in an epidemic in 1617–1619.[83] In 1633, in Plymouth, the Native Americans there were exposed to smallpox because of contact with Europeans. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population groups of Native Americans.[84] It reached Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679.[85][86] During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the West Coast Native Americans.[87] The 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic and 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic brought devastation and drastic population depletion among the Plains Indians.[88][89] In 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832).[90][91]

The Indigenous peoples in Brazil declined from a pre-Columbian high of an estimated three million[92] to some 300,000 in 1997.[93]

The Spanish Empire and other Europeans brought horses to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild.[94] The re-introduction of the horse, extinct in the Americas for over 7500 years, had a profound impact on Native American culture in the Great Plains of North America and of Patagonia in South America. By domesticating horses, some tribes had great success: horses enabled them to expand their territories, exchange more goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game, especially bison.

Agriculture

A bison hunt depicted by George Catlin

Over the course of thousands of years, American indigenous peoples domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species. These species now constitute 50–60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide.[95] In certain cases, the indigenous peoples developed entirely new species and strains through artificial selection, as was the case in the domestication and breeding of maize from wild teosinte grasses in the valleys of southern Mexico. Numerous such agricultural products retain their native names in the English and Spanish lexicons.

The South American highlands were a center of early agriculture. Genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species suggests that the potato has a single origin in the area of southern Peru,[96] from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex. Over 99% of all modern cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a subspecies indigenous to south-central Chile,[97] Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum, where it was cultivated as long as 10,000 years ago.[98][99] According to George Raudzens, "It is clear that in pre-Columbian times some groups struggled to survive and often suffered food shortages and famines, while others enjoyed a varied and substantial diet."[100] The persistent drought around 850 AD coincided with the collapse of Classic Maya civilization, and the famine of One Rabbit (AD 1454) was a major catastrophe in Mexico.[101]

Andenes in the Sacred Valley of the Incas, Peru. The Incan agricultural terraces are still used by many of the Incas' descendents, Quechua-speaking Andean farmers.

Natives of North America began practicing farming approximately 4,000 years ago, late in the Archaic period of North American cultures. Technology had advanced to the point that pottery was becoming common and the small-scale felling of trees had become feasible. Concurrently, the Archaic Indians began using fire in a controlled manner. Intentional burning of vegetation was used to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories. It made travel easier and facilitated the growth of herbs and berry-producing plants, which were important for both food and medicines.[102]

In the Mississippi River valley, Europeans noted Native Americans' managed groves of nut and fruit trees not far from villages and towns and their gardens and agricultural fields. Further away, prescribed burning would have been used in forest and prairie areas.[103]

Many crops first domesticated by indigenous Americans are now produced and used globally. Chief among these is maize or "corn", arguably the most important crop in the world.[104] Other significant crops include cassava, chia, squash (pumpkins, zucchini, marrow, acorn squash, butternut squash), the pinto bean, Phaseolus beans including most common beans, tepary beans and lima beans, tomatoes, potatoes, avocados, peanuts, cocoa beans (used to make chocolate), vanilla, strawberries, pineapples, Peppers (species and varieties of Capsicum, including bell peppers, jalapeños, paprika and chili peppers) sunflower seeds, rubber, brazilwood, chicle, tobacco, coca, manioc and some species of cotton.

Studies of contemporary indigenous environmental management, including agro-forestry practices among Itza Maya in Guatemala and hunting and fishing among the Menominee of Wisconsin, suggest that longstanding "sacred values" may represent a summary of sustainable millennial traditions.[105]

Culture

Quechua woman and child in the Sacred Valley, Andes, Peru

Cultural practices in the Americas seem to have been shared mostly within geographical zones where unrelated peoples adopted similar technologies and social organizations. An example of such a cultural area is Mesoamerica, where millennia of coexistence and shared development among the peoples of the region produced a fairly homogeneous culture with complex agricultural and social patterns. Another well-known example is the North American plains where until the 19th century several peoples shared the traits of nomadic hunter-gatherers based primarily on buffalo hunting.

Writing systems

Maya glyphs in stucco at the Museo de sitio in Palenque, Mexico

The development of writing is counted among the many achievements and innovations of pre-Columbian American cultures. Independent from the development of writing in other areas of the world, the Mesoamerican region produced several indigenous writing systems beginning in the 1st millennium BCE. What may be the earliest-known example in the Americas of an extensive text thought to be writing is by the Cascajal Block. The Olmec hieroglyphs tablet has been indirectly dated from ceramic shards found in the same context to approximately 900 BCE, around the time that Olmec occupation of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán began to wane.[106]

The Maya writing system (often called hieroglyphs from a superficial resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian writing) was a combination of phonetic symbols and logograms. It is most often classified as a logographic or (more properly) a logosyllabic writing system, in which syllabic signs play a significant role. It is the only pre-Columbian writing system known to represent completely the spoken language of its community. In total, the script has more than one thousand different glyphs although a few are variations of the same sign or meaning and many appear only rarely or are confined to particular localities. At any one time, no more than about five hundred glyphs were in use, some two hundred of which (including variations) had a phonetic or syllabic interpretation.

Aztec codices (singular codex) are books written by pre-Columbian and colonial-era Aztecs. These codices provide some of the best primary sources for Aztec culture. The pre-Columbian codices differ from European codices in that they are largely pictorial; they were not meant to symbolize spoken or written narratives.[107] The colonial era codices not only contain Aztec pictograms, but also Classical Nahuatl (in the Latin alphabet), Spanish, and occasionally Latin.

Spanish mendicants in the sixteenth century taught indigenous scribes in their communities to write their languages in Latin letters and there is a large number of local-level documents in Nahuatl, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Yucatec Maya from the colonial era, many of which were part of lawsuits and other legal matters. Although Spaniards initially taught indigenous scribes alphabetic writing, the tradition became self-perpetuating at the local level.[108] The Spanish crown gathered such documentation and contemporary Spanish translations were made for legal cases. Scholars have translated and analyzed these documents in what is called the New Philology to write histories of indigenous peoples from indigenous viewpoints.[109]

The Wiigwaasabak, birch bark scrolls on which the Ojibwa (Anishinaabe) people wrote complex geometrical patterns and shapes, can also be considered a form of writing, as can Mi'kmaq hieroglyphics.

Aboriginal syllabic writing, or simply syllabics, is a family of abugidas used to write some Aboriginal Canadian languages of the Algonquian, Inuit, and Athabaskan language families.

Music and art

An Aztec or Mixtec golden labret ornament in the shape of an eagle

Native American music in North America is almost entirely monophonic, but there are notable exceptions. Traditional Native American music often centers around drumming. Rattles, clappersticks, and rasps were also popular percussive instruments. Flutes were made of rivercane, cedar, and other woods. The tuning of these flutes is not precise and depends on the length of the wood used and the hand span of the intended player, but the finger holes are most often around a whole step apart and, at least in Northern California, a flute was not used if it turned out to have an interval close to a half step. The Apache fiddle is a single stringed instrument.

A carved wood Iroquois mask used by the False Face Society, Berlin Ethnological Museum

The music of the indigenous peoples of Central Mexico and Central America was often pentatonic. Before the arrival of the Spaniards and other Europeans, music was inseparable from religious festivities and included a large variety of percussion and wind instruments such as drums, flutes, sea snail shells (used as a trumpet) and "rain" tubes. No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya of the Late Classic Era (600–900 CE), which depicts a stringed musical instrument which has since been reproduced. This instrument is one of the very few stringed instruments known in the Americas prior to the introduction of European musical instruments; when played it produces a sound virtually identical to a jaguar's growl.[110]

The Princeton Vase, a classic era Maya ceramic

Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas comprise a major category in the world art collection. Contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry, carvings, and beadwork.[111] Because too many artists were posing as Native Americans and Alaska Natives[112] in order to profit from the caché of Indigenous art in the United States, the U.S. passed the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, requiring artists to prove that they are enrolled in a state or federally recognized tribe. To support the ongoing practice of American Indian, Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian arts and cultures in the United States,[113] the Ford Foundation, arts advocates and American Indian tribes created an endowment seed fund and established a national Native Arts and Cultures Foundation in 2007.[114][115]

Native American in traditional clothing

Demography of contemporary populations

This map shows the percentage of indigenous population in different countries of the Americas.

The following table provides estimates for each country in the Americas of the populations of indigenous people and those with partial indigenous ancestry, each expressed as a percentage of the overall population. The total percentage obtained by adding both of these categories is also given.

Note: these categories are inconsistently defined and measured differently from country to country. Some figures are based on the results of population-wide genetic surveys while others are based on self-identification or observational estimation.

Indigenous populations of the Americas
as estimated percentage of total country's population
Country Indigenous Ref. Part indigenous Ref. Combined total Ref.
North America
Greenland 89% [116] % [116] 89% [116]
Canada 1.8% [117] 3.6% [117] 5.4% [117]
Mexico 12.8% [118] 75%
Dominican Republic % % %
Grenada ~0.4% [119] ~0% [119] ~0% [119]
Haiti ~0% [120] ~0% [120] ~0% [120]
Jamaica % % %
Puerto Rico 0.4% [121] 84% [122] 84%
Saint Kitts and Nevis % % %
Saint Lucia % % %
Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines
2% [123] % %
Trinidad and Tobago 0.8% 88% 80%
South America
Argentina 2.38% [124] 8.5% [125][126] 10.88%
Bolivia 55% [127] 30% [127] 85% [127]
Brazil 0.4% [128] % %
Chile 4.6% [129] % %
Colombia 3.4% [130] 49% [130] 52.4% [130]
Ecuador 25% [131] 65% [131] 90% [131]
French Guiana % % %
Guyana 9.1% [132] % %
Paraguay 1.7% [133] 95% [134] 96.7%
Peru 45% [135] 37% [135] 82% [135]
Suriname 2% [136] % %
Uruguay 0% [137] 2.4% [138] 2.4% [138]
Venezuela 2.7% [139] 68% 70.7%

History and status by country

Argentina

Proprietors of a roadside cafe near Cachi, Argentina

In 2005, Argentina's indigenous population (known as pueblos originarios) numbered about 600,329 (1.6% of total population); this figure includes 457,363 people who self-identified as belonging to an indigenous ethnic group and 142,966 who identified themselves as first-generation descendants of an indigenous people.[140] The ten most populous indigenous peoples are the Mapuche (113,680 people), the Kolla (70,505), the Toba (69,452), the Guaraní (68,454), the Wichi (40,036), the Diaguita-Calchaquí (31,753), the Mocoví (15,837), the Huarpe (14,633), the Comechingón (10,863) and the Tehuelche (10,590). Minor but important peoples are the Quechua (6,739), the Charrúa (4,511), the Pilagá (4,465), the Chané (4,376), and the Chorote (2,613). The Selknam (Ona) people are now virtually extinct in its pure form. The languages of the Diaguita, Tehuelche, and Selknam nations have become extinct or virtually extinct: the Cacán language (spoken by Diaguitas) in the 18th century and the Selknam language in the 20th century; one Tehuelche language (Southern Tehuelche) is still spoken by a handful of elderly people.

Belize

Mestizos (European with indigenous peoples) number about 34 percent of the population; unmixed Maya make up another 10.6 percent (Ketchi, Mopan, and Yucatec). The Garifuna, who came to Belize in the 19th century, originating from Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, with a mixed African, Carib, and Arawak ancestry make up another 6% of the population.[141]

Bolivia

Bolivia and Peru have a dominant Native American population.

In Bolivia, a 62% majority of residents over the age of 15 self-identify as belonging to an indigenous people, while another 3.7% grew up with an indigenous mother tongue yet do not self-identify as indigenous.[142] Including both of these categories, and children under 15, some 66.4% of Bolivia's population was registered as indigenous in the 2001 Census.[143] The largest indigenous ethnic groups are: Quechua, about 2.5 million people; Aymara, 2.0 million; Chiquitano, 181,000; Guaraní, 126,000; and Mojeño, 69,000. Some 124,000 belong to smaller indigenous groups.[144] The Constitution of Bolivia, enacted in 2009, recognizes 36 cultures, each with its own language, as part of a plurinational state. Some groups, including CONAMAQ (the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu) draw ethnic boundaries within the Quechua- and Aymara-speaking population, resulting in a total of fifty indigenous peoples native to Bolivia.

Indigenous woman in traditional dress, near Cochabamba, Bolivia

Large numbers of Bolivian highland peasants retained indigenous language, culture, customs, and communal organization throughout the Spanish conquest and the post-independence period. They mobilized to resist various attempts at the dissolution of communal landholdings and used legal recognition of "empowered caciques" to further communal organization. Indigenous revolts took place frequently until 1953.[145] While the National Revolutionary Movement government begun in 1952 discouraged self-identification as indigenous (reclassifying rural people as campesinos, or peasants), renewed ethnic and class militancy re-emerged in the Katarista movement beginning in the 1970s.[146] Lowland indigenous peoples, mostly in the east, entered national politics through the 1990 March for Territory and Dignity organized by the CIDOB confederation. That march successfully pressured the national government to sign the ILO Convention 169 and to begin the still-ongoing process of recognizing and titling indigenous territories. The 1994 Law of Popular Participation granted "grassroots territorial organizations" that are recognized by the state certain rights to govern local areas.

Some radio and television programs in Quechua and Aymara are produced. The constitutional reform in 1997 recognized Bolivia as a multilingual, pluri-ethnic society and introduced education reform. In 2005, for the first time in the country's history, an indigenous Aymara, Evo Morales, was elected as President.

Morales began work on his "indigenous autonomy" policy, which he launched in the eastern lowlands department on August 3, 2009, making Bolivia the first country in the history of South America to affirm the right of indigenous people to govern themselves.[147] Speaking in Santa Cruz Department, the President called it "a historic day for the peasant and indigenous movement", saying that, though he might make errors, he would "never betray the fight started by our ancestors and the fight of the Bolivian people".[147] A vote on further autonomy will take place in referendums which are expected to be held in December 2009.[147] The issue has divided the country.[148]

Brazil

Members of an uncontacted tribe encountered in the Brazilian state of Acre in 2009

Indigenous peoples of Brazil make up 0.4% of Brazil's population, or about 700,000 people,[93] even though millions of Brazilians have some indigenous ancestry.[149][150] Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in Indian reservations in the North and Center-Western part of the country. On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes.[150]

In a 2007 news story, The Washington Post reported, "As has been proved in the past when uncontacted tribes are introduced to other populations and the microbes they carry, maladies as simple as the common cold can be deadly. In the 1970s, 185 members of the Panara tribe died within two years of discovery after contracting such diseases as flu and chickenpox, leaving only 69 survivors."[151]

Canada

Bill Reid's sculpture The Raven and The First Men. The Raven represents the Trickster figure common to many mythologies.

Aboriginal peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations,[152] Inuit[153] and Métis;[154] the descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" are falling into disuse, and other than in neighboring Alaska. "Eskimo" is considered derogatory in many other places because it was given by non-Inuit people and was said to mean "eater of raw meat."[155] Hundreds of Aboriginal nations evolved trade, spiritual and social hierarchies. The Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and native Inuit married European settlers.[156] The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during that early period.[157] Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada. Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides opportunity to manage historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within first people's communities.

Although not without conflict, European/Canadian early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful compared to the experience of native peoples in the United States.[158] Combined with a late economic development in many regions,[159] this relatively peaceful history has allowed Canadian Indigenous peoples to have a fairly strong influence on the early national culture while preserving their own identity.[160] From the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged Aboriginals to assimilate into their own culture, referred to as "Canadian culture".[161] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration.[162] National Aboriginal Day recognises the cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples of Canada.[163] There are currently over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands encompassing 1,172,790 2006 people spread across Canada with distinctive Aboriginal cultures, languages, art, and music.[164][165][166]

Chile

Mapuche man and woman. The Mapuche make up about 85% of Chile's indigenous population.

According to the 2002 Census, 4.6% of the Chilean population, including the Rapanui (a Polynesian people) of Easter Island, was indigenous, although most show varying degrees of mixed heritage.[167] Many are descendants of the Mapuche, and live in Santiago, Araucanía and the lake district. The Mapuche successfully fought off defeat in the first 300–350 years of Spanish rule during the Arauco War. Relations with the new Chilean Republic were good until the Chilean state decided to occupy their lands. During the Occupation of Araucanía the Mapuche surrendered to the country's army in the 1880s. Their land was opened to settlement by Chileans and Europeans. Conflict over Mapuche land rights continues to the present.

Other groups include the Aymara, the majority of whom live in Bolivia and Peru, with smaller numbers in the Arica-Parinacota and Tarapacá Regions, and the Atacama people (Atacameños), who reside mainly in El Loa.

Colombia

A minority today within Colombia's overwhelmingly Mestizo and White Colombian population, Colombia's indigenous peoples consist of around 85 distinct cultures and more than 1,378,884 people.[168][169] A variety of collective rights for indigenous peoples are recognized in the 1991 Constitution.

One of the influences is the Muisca culture, a subset of the larger Chibcha ethnic group, famous for their use of gold, which led to the legend of El Dorado. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Muisca were the largest native civilization geographically between the Incas and the Aztecs empires.

Costa Rica

There are over 60,000 inhabitants of Native American origins, representing 1.5% of the population. Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (In the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (Northern Alajuela), Bribri (Southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Guaymí (Southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (Southern Costa Rica) and Ngäbe (Southern Costa Rica).

These native groups are characterized for their work in wood, like masks, drums and other artistic figures, as well as fabrics made of cotton.

Their subsistence is based on agriculture, having corn, beans and plantains as the main crops.

Cuba

In Cuba the population of Amerindians includes 0.1 of the population and 0.2 part Native which is also part of the population. Many are from the Taino people or Arawak people. When the Spanish Empire was in control of the island they used the Natives as slaves and many died from diseases, hence decreasing the population. Presently 0.3 of the population of Cuba consists of part Native and full-blooded Amerindians.

Dominica

Dominica is home to the Carib Territory, one of the last indigenous communities in the Caribbean. The Carib Territory is home to an estimated 3,000 Kalinago or Carib people.

Ecuador

Otavalo girl from Ecuador

Ecuador was the site of many indigenous cultures, and civilizations of different proportions. An early sedentary culture, known as the Valdivia culture, developed in the coastal region, while the Caras and the Quitus unified to form an elaborate civilization that ended at the birth of the Capital Quito. The Cañaris near Cuenca were the most advanced, and most feared by the Inca, due to their fierce resistance to the Incan expansion. Their architecture remains were later destroyed by Spaniards and the Incas.

Approximately 96.4% of Ecuador's Indigenous population are Highland Quichuas living in the valleys of the Sierra region. Primarily consisting of the descendents of Incans, they are Kichwa speakers and include the Caranqui, the Otavalos, the Cayambi, the Quitu-Caras, the Panzaleo, the Chimbuelo, the Salasacan, the Tugua, the Puruhá, the Cañari, and the Saraguro. Linguistic evidence suggests that the Salascan and the Saraguro may have been the descendants of Bolivian ethnic groups transplanted to Ecuador as mitimaes.

Coastal groups, including the Awá, Chachi, and the Tsáchila, make up 0.24% percent of the indigenous population, while the remaining 3.35 percent live in the Oriente and consist of the Oriente Kichwa (the Canelo and the Quijos), the Shuar, the Huaorani, the Siona-Secoya, the Cofán, and the Achuar.

In 1986, indigenous people formed the first "truly" national political organization. The Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE) has been the primary political institution of the Indigenous since then and is now the second largest political party in the nation. It has been influential in national politics, contributing to the ouster of presidents Abdalá Bucaram in 1997 and Jamil Mahuad in 2000.

El Salvador

Indigenous Salvadoran Pipil women dancing in the traditional Procession of Palms, Panchimalco in El Salvador

Much of El Salvador was home to the Pipil, the Lenca, Xinca, and Kakawira. The Pipil lived in western El Salvador, spoke Nawat, and had many settlements there, most noticeably Cuzcatlan. The Pipil had no precious mineral resources, but they did have rich and fertile land that was good for farming. The Spaniards were disappointed not to find gold or jewels in El Salvador as they had in other lands like Guatemala or Mexico, but upon learning of the fertile land in El Salvador, they attempted to conquer it. Noted Meso-American indigenous warriors to rise militarily against the Spanish included Princes Atonal and Atlacatl of the Pipil people in central El Salvador and Princess Antu Silan Ulap of the Lenca people in eastern El Salvador, who saw the Spanish not as gods but as barbaric invaders. After fierce battles, the Pipil successfully fought off the Spanish army led by Pedro de Alvarado along with their Mexican Indian allies (the Tlaxcalas), sending them back to Guatemala. After many other attacks with an army reinforced with Guatemalan Indian allies, the Spanish were able to conquer Cuzcatlan. After further attacks, the Spanish also conquered the Lenca people. Eventually, the Spaniards intermarried with Pipil and Lenca women, resulting in the Mestizo population which would become the majority of the Salvadoran people. Today many Pipil and other indigenous populations live in the many small towns of El Salvador like Izalco, Panchimalco, Sacacoyo, and Nahuizalco.

Guatemala

Maya women from Guatemala

Most of the indigenous peoples of Guatemala are of Maya heritage. The Xinca people are a non-Maya indigenous people.

Pure Maya account for some forty percent of the population; although around forty percent of the population speaks an indigenous language, those tongues (of which there are more than twenty) enjoy no official status. Guatemala's majority population holds a percentage of 59.4% in White or Mestizo (of mixed European and indigenous ancestry) people. The area of Livingston, Guatemala is highly influenced by the Caribbean and its population includes a combination of Mestizos and Garifuna people.

Honduras

About five percent of the population are of full-blooded indigenous descent, but upwards to eighty percent more or the majority of Hondurans are mestizo or part-indigenous with European admixture, and about ten percent are of indigenous or African descent.[170] The main concentration of indigenous in Honduras are in the rural westernmost areas facing Guatemala and to the Caribbean Sea coastline, as well on the Nicaraguan border.[170] The majority of indigenous people are Lencas, Miskitos to the east, Mayans, Pech, Sumos, and Tolupan.[170]

Mexico

Wixarika (Huichol) woman from Zacatecas

The territory of modern-day Mexico was home to numerous indigenous civilizations prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores: The Olmecs, who flourished from between 1200 BCE to about 400 BCE in the coastal regions of the Gulf of Mexico; the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, who held sway in the mountains of Oaxaca and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; the Maya in the Yucatan (and into neighbouring areas of contemporary Central America); the Purépecha in present-day Michoacán and surrounding areas, and the Aztecs/Mexica, who, from their central capital at Tenochtitlan, dominated much of the centre and south of the country (and the non-Aztec inhabitants of those areas) when Hernán Cortés first landed at Veracruz.

In contrast to what was the general rule in the rest of North America, the history of the colony of New Spain was one of racial intermingling (mestizaje). Mestizos, which in Mexico designate people who do not identify culturally with any indigenous grouping, quickly came to account for a majority of the colony's population; but 6% of the Mexican population identify as speakers of one of the indigenous languages. The CDI identifies 62 indigenous groups in Mexico, each with a unique language.[171]

In the states of Chiapas and Oaxaca and in the interior of the Yucatan peninsula the majority of the population is indigenous. Large indigenous minorities, including Aztecs or Nahua, Purépechas, Mazahua, Otomi, and Mixtecs are also present in the central regions of Mexico. In Northern Mexico indigenous people are a small minority.

Two Maya women in the highlands of Chiapas

The "General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples" grants all indigenous languages spoken in Mexico, regardless of the number of speakers, the same validity as Spanish in all territories in which they are spoken, and indigenous peoples are entitled to request some public services and documents in their native languages.[172] Along with Spanish, the law has granted them — more than 60 languages — the status of "national languages". The law includes all indigenous languages of the Americas regardless of origin; that is, it includes the indigenous languages of ethnic groups non-native to the territory. As such the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples recognizes the language of the Kickapoo, who immigrated from the United States,[173] and recognizes the languages of the Guatemalan indigenous refugees.[174] The Mexican government has promoted and established bilingual primary and secondary education in some indigenous rural communities. Nonetheless, of the indigenous peoples in Mexico, only about 67% of them (or 5.4% of the country's population) speak an indigenous language and about a sixth do not speak Spanish (1.2% of the country's population).[175]

The indigenous peoples in Mexico have the right of free determination under the second article of the constitution. According to this article the indigenous peoples are granted:[176]

amongst other rights.

Nicaragua

About 5% of the Nicaraguan population are indigenous. The largest indigenous group in Nicaragua is the Miskito people. Their territory extended from Cape Camarón, Honduras, to Rio Grande, Nicaragua along the Mosquito Coast. There is a native Miskito language, but large groups speak Miskito Coast Creole, Spanish, Rama and other languages. The Creole English came about through frequent contact with the British who colonized the area. Many are Christians. Traditional Miskito society was highly structured with a defined political structure. There was a king, but he did not have total power. Instead, the power was split between himself, a governor, a general, and by the 1750s, an admiral. Historical information on kings is often obscured by the fact that many of the kings were semi-mythical. Another major group is the Mayangna (or Sumu) people, counting some 10,000 people.[177]

Other indigenous groups in Nicaragua are located in the Central and Northern Pacific area and they are self-identified as follows: Chorotega, Cacaopera, Xiu-Subtiaba and Nahoa.[178]

Peru

Indigenous population in Peru make up around 45%.[179] Native Peruvian traditions and customs have shaped the way Peruvians live and see themselves today. Cultural citizenship—or what Renato Rosaldo has called, "the right to be different and to belong, in a democratic, participatory sense" (1996:243)—is not yet very well developed in Peru. This is perhaps no more apparent than in the country's Amazonian regions where indigenous societies continue to struggle against state-sponsored economic abuses, cultural discrimination, and pervasive violence.[180]

Suriname

United States

Choctaw artist from Oklahoma

Indigenous peoples in what is now the contiguous United States, including their descendants, are commonly called "American Indians", or simply "Indians" domestically, or "Native Americans" by the USCB. In Alaska, indigenous peoples belong to 11 cultures with 11 languages. These include the St. Lawrence Island Yupik, Iñupiat, Athabaskan, Yup'ik, Cup'ik, Unangax, Alutiiq, Eyak, Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit,[181] who are collectively called Alaska Natives. Indigenous Polynesian peoples, which include Marshallese, Samoan, Tahitian, and Tongan, are politically considered Pacific Islands American but are geographically and culturally distinct from indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Native Americans in the United States make up 0.97%[182] to 2% of the population. In the 2010 census, 2.9 million people self-identified as Native American, Native Hawaiian, and Alaska Native alone, and 5.2 million people identified as U.S. Native Americans, either alone or in combination with one or more ethnicity or other races.[4] 1.8 million are recognized as enrolled tribal members. Tribes have established their own criteria for membership, which are often based on blood quantum, lineal descent, or residency. A minority of US Native Americans live in land units called Indian reservations. Some California and Southwestern tribes, such as the Kumeyaay, Cocopa, Pascua Yaqui and Apache span both sides of the US–Mexican border. Haudenosaunee people have the legal right to freely cross the US–Canadian border. Athabascan, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Iñupiat, Blackfeet, Nakota, Cree, Anishinaabe, Huron, Lenape, Mi'kmaq, Penobscot, and Haudenosaunee, among others live in both Canada and the US.

Venezuela

A Venezuelan Warao family traveling in their canoe

Most Venezuelans have some indigenous heritage, but the indigenous population make up only around 2% of the total population. They speak around 29 different languages and many more dialects, but some of the ethnic groups are very small and their languages are in danger of becoming extinct in the next decades. The most important indigenous groups are the Ye'kuana, the Wayuu, the Pemon and the Warao. The most advanced native people to have lived in present-day Venezuela is thought to have been the Timoto-cuicas, who mainly lived in the Venezuelan Andes. In total it is estimated that there were between 350 thousand and 500 thousand inhabitants, the most densely populated area being the Andean region (Timoto-cuicas), thanks to the advanced agricultural techniques used.

The 1999 constitution of Venezuela gives them special rights, although the vast majority of them still live in very critical conditions of poverty. The largest groups receive some basic primary education in their languages.

Other parts of the Americas

Indigenous peoples make up the majority of the population in Bolivia and Peru, and are a significant element in most other former Spanish colonies. Exceptions to this include Uruguay (Native Charrúa). According to the 2011 Census, 2.4% of Uruguayans reported having indigenous ancestry.[138] At least four of the Native American languages (Quechua in Peru and Bolivia; Aymara also in Peru and Bolivia, Guarani in Paraguay, and Greenlandic in Greenland) are recognized as official languages.

Native American name controversy

The Native American name controversy is an ongoing dispute over the acceptable ways to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas and to broad subsets thereof, such as those living in a specific country or sharing certain cultural attributes. When discussing broader subsets of peoples, naming may be based on shared language, region, or historical relationship. Many English exonyms have been used to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these names were based on foreign-language terms used by earlier explorers and colonists, while others resulted from the colonists' attempt to translate endonyms from the native language into their own, and yet others were pejorative terms arising out of prejudice and fear, during periods of conflict.

However, since the 20th century, indigenous peoples in the Americas have been more vocal about the ways they wish to be referred to, pressing for the elimination of terms widely considered to be obsolete, inaccurate, or racist. During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Indian rights movement, the United States government responded by proposing the use of the term "Native American," to recognize the primacy of indigenous peoples' tenure in the nation, but this term was not fully accepted. Other naming conventions have been proposed and used, but none are accepted by all indigenous groups.

Rise of indigenous movements

In recent years, there has been a rise of indigenous movements in the Americas (mainly South America). These are rights-driven groups that organize themselves in order to achieve some sort of self-determination and the preservation of their culture for their peoples. Organizations like the Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin and the Indian Council of South America are examples of movements that are breaking the barrier of borders in order to obtain rights for Amazonian indigenous populations everywhere. Similar movements for indigenous rights can also be seen in Canada and the United States, with movements like the International Indian Treaty Council and the accession of native Indian group into the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization.

There has also been a recognition of indigenous movements on an international scale, with the United Nations adopting the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, despite dissent from the stronger countries of the Americas.

In Colombia, various indigenous groups protested the denial of their rights. People organized a march in Cali in October 2008 to demand the government live up to promises to protect indigenous lands, defend the indigenous against violence, and reconsider the free trade pact with the United States.[183]

Legal prerogative

The first indigenous president to be democratically elected in Latin America was Benito Juarez, a Mexican of the Zapotec ethnic group, who was elected President of Mexico in 1858.[184]

With the rise to power of governments in Venezuela, Ecuador, Paraguay, and especially Bolivia where Evo Morales was the first indigenous descendant elected president of Bolivia, the indigenous movement gained a strong foothold.

Representatives from indigenous and rural organizations from major South American countries, including Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Chile and Brazil, started a forum in support of Morales' legal process of change. The meeting condemned plans by the European "foreign power elite" to destabilize the country. The forum also expressed solidarity with the Morales and his economic and social changes in the interest of historically marginalized majorities. Furthermore, in a cathartic blow to the US-backed elite, it questioned US interference through diplomats and NGOs. The forum was suspicious of plots against Bolivia and other countries, including Cuba, Venezuela, Ecuador, Paraguay and Nicaragua.[185]

The forum rejected the supposed violent method used by regional civic leaders from the called "Crescent departments" in Bolivia to impose their autonomous statutes, applauded the decision to expel the US ambassador to Bolivia, and reaffirmed the sovereignty and independence of the presidency. Amongst others, representatives of CONAIE, the National Indigenous Organization of Colombia, the Chilean Council of All Lands, and the Brazilian Landless Movement participated in the forum.[185]

Genetics

Schematic illustration of maternal geneflow in and out of Beringia. Colours of the arrows correspond to approximate timing of the events and are decoded in the coloured time-bar. The initial peopling of Berinigia (depicted in light yellow) was followed by a standstill after which the ancestors of indigenous Americans spread swiftly all over the New World while some of the Beringian maternal lineages–C1a-spread westwards. More recent (shown in green) genetic exchange is manifested by back-migration of A2a into Siberia and the spread of D2a into north-eastern America that post-dated the initial peopling of the New World.
Schematic illustration of maternal (mtDNA) gene-flow in and out of Beringia, from 25,000 years ago to present

Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily focus on Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups and Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. "Y-DNA" is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while "mtDNA" is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material.[186] Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly.[187] AtDNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and related isolated populations.[187]

Genetic studies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of Amerindians and some Siberian and Central Asian peoples also revealed that the gene pool of the Turkic-speaking peoples of Siberia such as Altaians, Khakas, Shors and Soyots, living between the Altai and Lake Baikal along the Sayan mountains, are genetically closest to Amerindians. This view is shared by other researchers who argue that "the ancestors of the American Indians were the first to separate from the great Asian population in the Middle Paleolithic.[188][189] 2012 research found evidence for a recent common ancestry between Native Americans and indigenous Altaians based on mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome analysis.[190] The paternal lineages of Altaians mostly belong to the subclades of haplogroup P-M45 (xR1a 38-93%;[191][192][193] xQ1a 4-32%[191][192]).

The genetic pattern indicates indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas.[44][194][195] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages, zygosity mutations and founding haplotypes present in today's indigenous peoples of the Americas populations.[194]

Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 15,000 to 20,000-year layover on Beringia for the small founding population.[44][196][197] The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain indigenous peoples of the Americas populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[198] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other indigenous peoples of the Americas with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations.[199][200][201] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.[202][203]

Scientific evidence links indigenous Americans to Asian peoples, specifically eastern Siberian populations. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to North Asian populations by the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, such as DNA.[204]

A 2013 study in Nature reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy from the archaeological Mal'ta-Buret' culture suggest that up to one-third of the indigenous Americans may have ancestry that can be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have "had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought".[205] "We estimate that 14 to 38 percent of Native American ancestry may originate through gene flow from this ancient population," the authors wrote. Professor Kelly Graf said,

Our findings are significant at two levels. First, it shows that Upper Paleolithic Siberians came from a cosmopolitan population of early modern humans that spread out of Africa to Europe and Central and South Asia. Second, Paleoindian skeletons like Buhl Woman with phenotypic traits atypical of modern-day indigenous Americans can be explained as having a direct historical connection to Upper Paleolithic Siberia.

A route through Beringia is seen as more likely than the Solutrean hypothesis.[205] Kashani et al. 2012 state that "The similarities in ages and geographical distributions for C4c and the previously analyzed X2a lineage provide support to the scenario of a dual origin for Paleo-Indians. Taking into account that C4c is deeply rooted in the Asian portion of the mtDNA phylogeny and is indubitably of Asian origin, the finding that C4c and X2a are characterized by parallel genetic histories definitively dismisses the controversial hypothesis of an Atlantic glacial entry route into North America."[206]

Notable individual indigenous peoples

See also

Notes

  1. "CIA, The World Factbook Peru" (PDF). Retrieved 12 July 2011.
  2. "CIA - The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
  3. http://www.ine.gob.gt/sistema/uploads/2014/02/26/L5pNHMXzxy5FFWmk9NHCrK9x7E5Qqvvy.pdf
  4. 1 2 United States Census Bureau. The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010
  5. http://estudios.anda.cl/recursos/censo_2012.pdf[]
  6. Canada 2011 Census
  7. DANE 2005 National Census
  8. "Población indígena o descendiente de pueblos indígenas u originarios en viviendas particulares por sexo, según edad en años simples y grupos quinquenales de edad." (xls). INDEC (in Spanish). 2010. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
  9. "2010 Census graphics of Brazil government". IBGE(Brazilian Institute of Geograph and Statistic. 2015-02-09.
  10. "About this Collection" (PDF). The Library of Congress. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  11. "CIA - The World Factbook - Honduras". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2013-12-03.
  12. 2005 Census
  13. "CIA - The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
  14. "8 LIZCANO" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-05-22.
  15. "Una comunidad indígena salvadoreña pide su reconocimiento constitucional en el país". soitu.es. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
  16. "Costa Rica: Ethnic groups". Cia.gov. Retrieved 21 December 2010.
  17. Lector de Google Drive. Docs.google.com. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
  18. The World Factbook. Cia.gov. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
  19. Redatam::CELADE, ECLAC - United Nations. Celade.cepal.org. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
  20. Archived 20 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
  21. "Terminology." Survival International. Retrieved 30 March 2012. "Aborigen" Diccionario de la Real Academia Española. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
  22. Reid, Basil. "Tracing Our Amerindian Heritage". www2.sta.uwi.edu. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
  23. Guide, Barbados.org Travel. "The Abbreviated History Of Barbados". www.barbados.org. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
  24. Limited, Unique Media Design. "diGJamaica :: Amerindian Jamaica". diGJamaica.com. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
  25. "Terminology". Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Retrieved 11 November 2009. The Canadian Constitution recognizes three groups of Aboriginal people — Indians (First Nations), Métis and Inuit. These separate peoples have unique heritages, languages, cultural practices, and spiritual beliefs
  26. "Terminology of First Nations Native, Aboriginal and Indian" (PDF). the Office of the Aboriginal Advisor for Aboriginals. Retrieved 11 November 2009. Native is a word similar in meaning to Aboriginal. Native Peoples or First peoples is a collective term to describe the descendants of the original peoples of North America.
  27. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v506/n7487/full/nature13025.html
  28. "Native Americans Descended From a Single Ancestral Group, DNA Study Confirms". UC Davis News & Information. 28 April 2009. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  29. 1 2 Bonatto, S. L.; Salzano, F. M. (1997). "A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA sequence data". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (National Academy of Sciences) 94 (5): 1866–1871. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.5.1866. PMC 20009. PMID 9050871.
  30. Wilton, David (2004-12-02). Word myths: debunking linguistic urban legends. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-19-517284-3. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
  31. Adams, Cecil (2001-10-25). "Does "Indian" derive from Columbus's description of Native Americans as "una gente in Dios"?". The Straight Dope. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
  32. Zimmer, Ben (2009-10-12). "The Biggest Misnomer of All Time?". VisualThesaurus.
  33. Hoxie, Frederick E. (1996). Encyclopedia of North American Indians. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 568. ISBN 978-0-395-66921-1.
  34. Herbst, Philip (1997). The Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States. Intercultural Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-877864-97-1.
  35. Gómez-Moriana, Antonio (1993-05-12). "The Emerging of a Discursive Instance:Columbus and the invention of the "Indian"". Discourse Analysis as Sociocriticism : The Spanish Golden Age. University Of Minnesota Press. pp. 124–132. ISBN 978-0-8166-2073-9. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
  36. Mann, Charles C. (2005). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. New York: Knopf Publishing Group. ISBN 1-4000-4006-X. OCLC 56632601.
  37. Göran Burenhult: Die ersten Menschen, Weltbild Verlag, 2000. ISBN 3-8289-0741-5
  38. 1 2 3 Pauketat, Timothy R. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology. Oxford University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-19-538011-8.
  39. 1 2 3 Linda S. Cordell; Kent Lightfoot; Francis McManamon; George Milner (2008). Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia 4. ABC-CLIO. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-313-02189-3.
  40. "An mtDNA view of the peopling of the world by Homo sapiens". Cambridge DNA Services. 2007. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved June 1, 2011.
  41. Goebel T, Waters MR, O'Rourke DH (2008). "The Late Pleistocene Dispersal of Modern Humans in the Americas" (PDF). Science (The Center for the Study of First Americans) 319 (5869): 1497–502. doi:10.1126/science.1153569. PMID 18339930. Retrieved February 5, 2010.
  42. "Pause Is Seen in a Continent’s Peopling". New York Times. 13 Mar 2014.
  43. Pielou, E. C. (2008). After the Ice Age: The Return of Life to Glaciated North America. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-66809-3.
  44. 1 2 3 Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002). The Journey of Man – A Genetic Odyssey. Random House. pp. 138–140. ISBN 0-8129-7146-9. Retrieved November 21, 2009.
  45. "The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health". Scientific American. Retrieved October 6, 2009.
  46. Than, Ker (2008). "New World Settlers Took 20,000-Year Pit Stop". National Geographic Society. Retrieved January 23, 2010.
  47. Sigurğardóttir, S; Guicher JR; Stefansson K; Donnelly P (2000). "The mutation rate in the human mtDNA control region". Am J Hum Genet 66 (5): 1599–609. doi:10.1086/302902. PMC 1378010. PMID 10756141.
  48. "First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover – Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News". Retrieved November 18, 2009. Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken page 2
  49. Dyke, A.S., A. Moore, and L. Robertson, 2003, Deglaciation of North America. Geological Survey of Canada Open File, 1574. (Thirty-two digital maps at 1:7 000 000 scale with accompanying digital chronological database and one poster (two sheets) with full map series.)
  50. Jordan, David K (2009). "Prehistoric Beringia". University of California-San Diego. Retrieved April 15, 2010.
  51. "The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health". Scientific American. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
  52. "Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America". American Antiquity 44 (1): 2. Jan 1979. JSTOR 279189.
  53. "68 Responses to "Sea will rise 'to levels of last Ice Age'"". Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
  54. "Journey of mankind". Brad Shaw Foundation. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
  55. "''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology.''". Enotes.com. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  56. 1 2 Rasmussen, M.; Anzick, S. L.; Waters, M. R.; Skoglund, P.; DeGiorgio, M.; Stafford, T. W.; Rasmussen, S.; Moltke, I.; Albrechtsen, A.; Doyle, S. M.; Poznik, G. D.; Gudmundsdottir, V.; Yadav, R.; Malaspinas, A. S.; White, S. S.; Allentoft, M. E.; Cornejo, O. E.; Tambets, K.; Eriksson, A.; Heintzman, P. D.; Karmin, M.; Korneliussen, T. S.; Meltzer, D. J.; Pierre, T. L.; Stenderup, J.; Saag, L.; Warmuth, V. M.; Lopes, M. C.; Malhi, R. S.; Brunak, S. R.; Sicheritz-Ponten, T.; Barnes, I.; Collins, M.; Orlando, L.; Balloux, F.; Manica, A.; Gupta, R.; Metspalu, M.; Bustamante, C. D.; Jakobsson, M.; Nielsen, R.; Willerslev, E. (2014-02-13). "The genome of a Late Pleistocene human from a Clovis burial site in western Montana". Nature 506 (7487): 225–229. doi:10.1038/nature13025. PMID 24522598.
  57. 13,000-year-old skeleton found in Mexican cave oldest ever uncovered in the Americas: study, ABC Online, 16 May 2014
  58. "Method and Theory in American Archaeology" (Digitised online by Questia Media). Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips. University of Chicago. 1958. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
  59. "Method and Theory in American Archaeology" (Digitised online by Questia Media). Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips. University of Chicago. 1958. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
  60. Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (1987). Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonisation from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic: 1229-1492. New studies in medieval history series. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education. ISBN 0-333-40382-7. OCLC 20055667.
  61. Sorenson, John L.; Carl L. Johannessen (2006). "Biological evidence for pre-Columbian transoceanic voyages". In Victor H. Mair (ed.). Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World. Perspectives on the global past series. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. pp. 238–297. ISBN 0-8248-2884-4. OCLC 62896389.
  62. Wright, Ronald (2005). Stolen Continents: 500 Years of Conquest and Resistance in the Americas (1st Mariner Books ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-49240-2. OCLC 57511483.
  63. Richard Erdoes, Alfonso Ortiz, (Eds.) "American Indian Myths and Legends." Pantheon, 1985.
  64. Martin, Stacie E (2004). "Native Americans". In Dinah Shelton. Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes against Humanity. Macmillan Library Reference. pp. 740–746.
  65. Stannard, David E. (1993). American Holocaust:The Conquest of the New World: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.
  66. Thornton, Russel (1987). American Indian Holocaust and Survival: ˜a Population History Since 1492. Norman : University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2074-4.
  67. Thornton, Russell (1990). American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-8061-2220-5
  68. 1 2 Espagnols-Indiens: le choc des civilisations" in L'Histoire, n°322, July–August 2007, pp.14–21
  69. Smallpox Through History. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009.
  70. Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). Encyclopedia of slave resistance and rebellion, Volume 1. ISBN 978-0-313-33272-2. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  71. Traboulay, David M. (September 1994). Columbus and Las Casas: the conquest and Christianization of America, 1492-1566. ISBN 978-0-8191-9642-2. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  72. "Laws of Burgos, 1512-1513". Faculty.smu.edu. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  73. Cook, p. 1.
  74. "BBC Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge". Bbc.co.uk. 2009-11-05. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  75. "The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs". Pbs.org. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  76. Kohn, George C. (2008). Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present. Infobase Publishing. p. 160. ISBN 0-8160-6935-2.
  77. "Epidemics". Libby-genealogy.com. 2009-04-30. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  78. American plague, New Scientist
  79. Oaxaca Archived 2 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
  80. "Stacy Goodling, "Effects of European Diseases on the Inhabitants of the New World"". Millersville.edu. Archived from the original on May 10, 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  81. See Varese (2004), as reviewed in Dean (2006).
  82. "Aboriginal Distributions 1630 to 1653". Natural Resources Canada. Archived 22 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
  83. Koplow, David A. "Smallpox: The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge". Ucpress.edu. p. . Retrieved 23 February 2011.
  84. Dutch Children's Disease Kills Thousands of Mohawks Archived 17 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
  85. Spaulding, W.B. "Smallpox". Thecanadianencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  86. "Iroquois". Fourdir.com. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  87. Lange, Greg (2003-01-23). "Smallpox epidemic ravages Native Americans on the northwest coast of North America in the 1770s". Historylink.org. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  88. Houston, C. S.; Houston, S (2000). "The first smallpox epidemic on the Canadian Plains: In the fur-traders' words". The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases 11 (2): 112–115. PMC 2094753. PMID 18159275.
  89. "Mountain Man Plain Indian Fur Trade". Thefurtrapper.com. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  90. "Lewis Cass and the Politics of Disease: The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832". Muse.jhu.edu. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  91. "Wicazo Sa Review: Vol. 18, No. 2, The Politics of Sovereignty". Autumn 2003: 9–35. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  92. Fineberg, Gail. "'500 Years of Brazil's Discovery'". Loc.gov. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  93. 1 2 "Brazil urged to protect Indians". BBC News. 2005-03-30. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  94. Ancient Horse (Equus cf. E. complicatus), The Academy of Natural Sciences, Thomas Jefferson Fossil Collection, Philadelphia, PA, (See: species Equus scotti) Others died out at the end of the last ice age with other megafauna.
  95. ""Native Americans: The First Farmers." ''AgExporter'' October 1, 1999". Allbusiness.com. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  96. Spooner, DM; et al. (2005). "A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping". PNAS 102 (41): 14694–99. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507400102. PMC 1253605. PMID 16203994. Lay summary
  97. Miller, N (2008-01-29). "Using DNA, scientists hunt for the roots of the modern potato". American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 10 September 2008.
  98. Solis, JS; Anabalón Rodríguez, Leonardo; et al. (2007). "Molecular description and similarity relationships among native germplasm potatoes (Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum L.) using morphological data and AFLP markers". Electronic Journal of Biotechnology 10 (3): 0. doi:10.2225/vol10-issue3-fulltext-14. Missing |last2= in Authors list (help)
  99. Francis, John Michael (2005). Iberia and the Americas. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-421-9.
  100. "Technology, disease, and colonial conquests, sixteenth to eighteenth centuries: essays reappraising the guns and germs theories". George Raudzens (2003). BRILL. p.190. ISBN 0-391-04206-8
  101. "The great Maya droughts: water, life, and death". Richardson Benedict Gill (2000). UNM Press. p.123. ISBN 0-8263-2774-5
  102. Owen, Wayne (2002). "Chapter 2 (TERRA–2): The History of Native Plant Communities in the South". Southern Forest Resource Assessment Final Report. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
  103. David L. Lentz, ed. (2000). Imperfect balance: landscape transformations in the Precolumbian Americas. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 241–242. ISBN 0-231-11157-6.
  104. Michael Pollan, The Omnivore's Dilemma
  105. Atran, Scott: Medin, Douglas (2010) The Native Mind and the Cultural Construction of Nature, MIT Press
  106. Skidmore, Joel (2006). "The Cascajal Block: The Earliest Precolumbian Writing" (PDF). Mesoweb Reports & News. pp. 1–4. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
  107. Elizabeth Hill Boone, "Pictorial Documents and Visual Thinking in Postconquest Mexico". p. 158.
  108. Frances Karttunen, "Nahuatl Literacy," in George A. Collier et al, eds. The Inca and Aztec States, New York: Academic Press 1982, pp. 395-417.
  109. James Lockhart, The Nahuas After the Conquest, Stanford: Stanford University Press 1992.
  110. A sample of this sound is available at the Princeton Art Museum website.
  111. ""Hair Pipes in Plains Indian Adornment" by John C. Ewers". Sil.si.edu. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
  112. Buying Alaska Native Art, Federal Trade Commission, Accessed 9/11/14 http://www.consumer.ftc.gov/articles/0177-buying-alaska-native-art
  113. ""National Native Arts And Cultures Foundation" by Native American Rights Fund". Retrieved 17 February 2015.
  114. http://www.fordfoundation.org/pdfs/library/Native-Arts-and-Cultures.pdf
  115. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/22/arts/22native.html "New Group Is Formed to Sponsor Native Arts," New York Times, April 21, 2009. Accessed June 2, 2014.
  116. 1 2 3 "North America: Greenland." CIA Factbook. Retrieved 7 October 2012.
  117. 1 2 3 "Aboriginal Identity (8), Area of Residence (6), Age Groups (12) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2006 Census - 20% Sample Data". Statistics Canada. 2010-05-19. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
  118. "Proyecciones de indígenas de México y de las entidades federativas 2000-2010" (PDF). Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas. 2010. Retrieved 11 April 2013.
  119. 1 2 3 Grenada entry at The World Factbook
  120. 1 2 3 Haiti entry at The World Factbook
  121. Puerto Rico entry at The World Factbook
  122. Bonilla et al., Ancestral proportions and their association with skin pigmentation and bone mineral density in Puerto Rican women from New York City. Hum Gen (2004) 115: 57-58, and Reconstructing the population history of Puerto Rico by means of mtDNA phylogeographic analysis, Martinez-Cruzado et al, Am J Phys Anthropol. 2005 Martínez-Cruzado, J. C.; Toro-Labrador, G.; Viera-Vera, J.; Rivera-Vega, M. Y.; Startek, J.; Latorre-Esteves, M.; Román-Colón, A.; Rivera-Torres, R.; Navarro-Millán, I. Y.; Gómez-Sánchez, E.; Caro-González, H. C. Y.; Valencia-Rivera, P. (2005). "Reconstructing the population history of Puerto Rico by means of mtDNA phylogeographic analysis". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 128 (1): 131–155. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20108. PMID 15693025.
  123. Suriname entry at The World Factbook
  124. http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/sociedad/3-197566-2012-06-30.html. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  125. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mx.html (2010)
  126. Encycolpedia Britannica. Book of the Year (various issues). Britannica World Data: Argentina.
  127. 1 2 3 Bolivia entry at The World Factbook
  128. "População residente, por cor ou raça, segundo a situação do domicílio - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística" (PDF). Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  129. Chile entry at The World Factbook
  130. 1 2 3 Bushnell, David & Rex A. Hudson (2010) "The Society and Its Environment"; Colombia: a country study: pp. 87, 92. Washingtion D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress.
  131. 1 2 3 Ecuador entry at The World Factbook
  132. Guyana entry at The World Factbook
  133. "Paraguay." Pan-American Health Organization. (retrieved 12 July 2011)
  134. Paraguay entry at The World Factbook
  135. 1 2 3 http://www.unicef.org/lac/PERU_revisado.pdf
  136. "CIA World Factbook: Suriname". CIA. Retrieved 23 Mar 2010.
  137. Uruguay entry at The World Factbook
  138. 1 2 3 "Atlas Sociodemografico y de la Desigualdad en Uruguay , 2011: Ancestry" (PDF) (in Spanish). National Institute of Statistics.
  139. "Resultado Básico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011" (PDF). Ine.gov.ve. p. 14. Retrieved 18 February 2012.
  140. "Encuesta Complementaria de Pueblos Indígenas (ECPI) 2004 - 2005". INDEC. Retrieved 2013-12-03.
  141. "Belize 2000 Housing and Population Census". Belize Central Statistical Office. 2000. Retrieved 30 September 2008.
  142. Indigenous identification was treated in a complex way in the 2001 Census, which collected data on self-identification, capacity to speak an indigenous language, and learning an indigenous language as a child. CEPAL, "Los pueblos indígenas de Bolivia: diagnóstico sociodemográfico a partir del censo del 2001," 2005, p. 32
  143. CEPAL, "Los pueblos indígenas de Bolivia: diagnóstico sociodemográfico a partir del censo del 2001," 2005, p. 42
  144. CEPAL, "Los pueblos indígenas de Bolivia: diagnóstico sociodemográfico a partir del censo del 2001," 2005, p. 47
  145. Gotkowitz, Laura (2007). A revolution for our rights: Indigenous struggles for land and justice in Bolivia, 1880–1952. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-4049-6.
  146. Rivera Cusicanqui, Silvia (1987). Oppressed but not defeated: Peasant struggles among the Aymara and Qhechwa in Bolivia, 1900-1980. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.
  147. 1 2 3 "Bolivian president Morales launches the "indigenous autonomy"". MercoPress. 2009-08-03. Retrieved 5 August 2009.
  148. "Bolivian Indians in historic step". BBC. 2009-08-03. Retrieved 5 August 2009.
  149. Mughal, Muhammad Aurang Zeb. 2012. Brazil. Steven Danver (ed.), Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures, and Contemporary Issues, Vol. 3. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, pp. 579-581.
  150. 1 2 Colitt, Raymond (2011-02-01). "Uncontacted Amazonian Tribe Spotted in Rare Photos: Big Pics h". Discovery.com. Retrieved 12 February 2012.
  151. "In Amazonia, Defending the Hidden Tribes," The Washington Post, 8 July 2007.
  152. "Civilization.ca-Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage-Culture". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. Government of Canada. May 12, 2006. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  153. "Inuit Circumpolar Council (Canada)-ICC Charter". Inuit Circumpolar Council > ICC Charter and By-laws > ICC Charter. 2007. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  154. "In the Kawaskimhon Aboriginal Moot Court Factum of the Federal Crown Canada" (PDF). Faculty of Law. University of Manitoba. 2007. p. 2. Retrieved 18 September 2009.
  155. Kaplam, Lawrence (2002). "Inuit or Eskimo: Which names to use?". Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved 6 April 2007.
  156. "What to Search: Topics-Canadian Genealogy Centre-Library and Archives Canada". Ethno-Cultural and Aboriginal Groups. Government of Canada. 2009-05-27. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
  157. "Innu Culture 3. Innu-Inuit 'Warfare'". 1999, Adrian Tanner Department of Anthropology-Memorial University of Newfoundland. Retrieved 5 October 2009.
  158. Preston, David L. (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667-1783. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 43–. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7.
  159. Riendeau, Roger E. (2007). A Brief History of Canada. Infobase Publishing. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-4381-0822-3.
  160. "A Dialogue on Foreign Policy" (PDF). Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade. January 2003: 15–16. Retrieved 30 November 2006.
  161. Asch, Michael (1997). Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference. UBC Pres. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-7748-0581-0.
  162. Laurence J. Kirmayer; Gail Guthrie Valaskakis (2009). Healing Traditions:: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada. UBC Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7748-5863-2.
  163. "National Aboriginal Day History" (PDF). Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
  164. "Assembly of First Nations - Assembly of First Nations-The Story". Assembly of First Nations. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
  165. "Civilization.ca-Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage-object". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. May 12, 2006. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
  166. "Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census - 20% Sample Data". Canada 2006 Census data products. Statistics Canada, Government of Canada. 2006. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  167. "El gradiente sociogenético chileno y sus implicaciones ético-sociales". Medwave.cl. 2000-06-15. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  168. DANE 2005 national census
  169. "Health equity and ethnic minorities in emergency situations", Pier Paolo Balladelli, José Milton Guzmán, Marcelo Korc, Paula Moreno, Gabriel Rivera, The Commission on Social Health Determinants, Pan American Health Organization, World Health Organization, Bogotá, Colombia, 2007
  170. 1 2 3 Bourgois, Philippe (Apr 1986). "The Miskitu of Nicaragua: Politicized Ethnicity". Anthropology Today (Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland) 2 (2): 4–9. doi:10.2307/3033029. JSTOR 3033029.
  171. Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas (PDF).
  172. "Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas (General Law of the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples)" (PDF). CDI México (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007. Retrieved 2 October 2007.
  173. "Kikapúes — Kikaapoa". CDI México. Retrieved 2 October 2007.
  174. "Aguacatecos, cakchiqueles, ixiles, kekchíes, tecos y quichés". CDI México. Archived from the original on 2007-09-26. Retrieved 2 October 2007.
  175. "Poblicación de 5 años y más por Entidad Federativa, sexo y grupos lengüa indígena quinquenales de edad, y su distribución según condición de habla indígena y habla española" (PDF). INEGI, México. Retrieved 13 December 2007.
  176. Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos PDF (779 KB). Second article.
  177. Gould, J. L. (1998). To die in this way: Nicaraguan Indians and the myth of mestizaje, 1880-1965. Duke University Press.
  178. CaracterĂsticas Socioculturales de los Pueblos IndĂgenas del PacĂfico, Centro y Norte. Pueblosindigenaspcn.net. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
  179. "People and Society: Peru." CIA - The World Factbook. Retrieved 28 Dec 2011.
  180. Dean, Bartholomew 2009 Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia, Gainesville: University Press of Florida ISBN 978-0-8130-3378-5, UPF.com
  181. "Education and Programs: Traditional Territories of Alaska Native Cultures". Alaskan Native Heritage Center Museum. Anchorage, AK. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  182. "North America: United States". The World Factbook. CIA. 28 October 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  183. Africa.euters.com Archived 27 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
  184. Harten, Sven (2011). The Rise of Evo Morales. Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84813-523-9.
  185. 1 2 Plenglish.com Archived 9 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
  186. Consortium, T. Y C. (2002). "A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups". Genome Research 12 (2): 339–48. doi:10.1101/gr.217602. PMC 155271. PMID 11827954.
  187. 1 2 Griffiths, Anthony J. F. (1999). "Sex chromosomes and sex-linked inheritance". An Introduction to genetic analysis. New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-3771-X.
  188. A. F. Nazarova, "Biological, archeological and cultural evidence of Paleo-Asiatic origin of northern Mongoloid, Caucasoid and American Indians", Academy Trinitarizm, Moscow, No. 77-6567, publ.14446, 2007.
  189. Pitulko, VV; Nikolsky, PA; Girya, EY; Basilyan, AE; Tumskoy, VE; Koulakov, SA; Astakhov, SN; Pavlova, EY; Anisimov, MA (2004). "The Yana RHS site: humans in the Arctic before the last glacial maximum". Science 303 (5654): 52–6. Bibcode:2004Sci...303...52P. doi:10.1126/science.1085219. PMID 14704419.
  190. Dulik, Matthew C.; Zhadanov, Sergey I.; Osipova, Ludmila P.; Askapuli, Ayken; Gau, Lydia; Gokcumen, Omer; Rubinstein, Samara; Schurr, Theodore G. (2012). "Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosome Variation Provides Evidence for a Recent Common Ancestry between Native Americans and Indigenous Altaians". The American Journal of Human Genetics 90 (2): 229–46. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.12.014. PMC 3276666. PMID 22281367.
  191. 1 2 Kharkov, V. N.; Stepanov, V. A.; Medvedeva, O. F.; Spiridonova, M. G.; Voevoda, M. I.; Tadinova, V. N.; Puzyrev, V. P. (2007). "Gene pool differences between Northern and Southern Altaians inferred from the data on Y-chromosomal haplogroups". Russian Journal of Genetics 43 (5): 551–62. doi:10.1134/S1022795407050110.
  192. 1 2 Tambets, Kristiina; Rootsi, Siiri; Kivisild, Toomas; Help, Hela; Serk, Piia; Loogväli, Eva-Liis; Tolk, Helle-Viivi; Reidla, Maere; Metspalu, Ene; Pliss, Liana; Balanovsky, Oleg; Pshenichnov, Andrey; Balanovska, Elena; Gubina, Marina; Zhadanov, Sergey; Osipova, Ludmila; Damba, Larisa; Voevoda, Mikhail; Kutuev, Ildus; Bermisheva, Marina; Khusnutdinova, Elza; Gusar, Vladislava; Grechanina, Elena; Parik, Jüri; Pennarun, Erwan; Richard, Christelle; Chaventre, Andre; Moisan, Jean-Paul; Barać, Lovorka; Peričić, Marijana; Rudan, Pavao; Terzić, Rifat; Mikerezi, Ilia; Krumina, Astrida; Baumanis, Viesturs; Koziel, Slawomir; Rickards, Olga; De Stefano, Gian Franco; Anagnou, Nicholas; Pappa, Kalliopi I.; Michalodimitrakis, Emmanuel; Ferák, Vladimir; Füredi, Sandor; Komel, Radovan; Beckman, Lars; Villems, Richard (2004). "The Western and Eastern Roots of the Saami—the Story of Genetic 'Outliers' Told by Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosomes". The American Journal of Human Genetics 74 (4): 661–82. doi:10.1086/383203. PMC 1181943. PMID 15024688.
  193. Lalueza-Fox, Carles; Järve, Mari; Zhivotovsky, Lev A.; Rootsi, Siiri; Help, Hela; Rogaev, Evgeny I.; Khusnutdinova, Elza K.; Kivisild, Toomas; Sanchez, Juan J. (2009). "Decreased Rate of Evolution in Y Chromosome STR Loci of Increased Size of the Repeat Unit". PLoS ONE 4 (9): e7276. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007276. PMC 2748704. PMID 19789645.
  194. 1 2 Tymchuk, Wendy (2008). "Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q. Genebase Tutorials". Genebase Systems. Archived from the original (Verbal tutorial possible) on June 22, 2010. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
  195. Leslie E., Orgel (2004). "Prebiotic Chemistry and the Origin of the RNA World". Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 39 (2): 99–123. doi:10.1080/10409230490460765. PMID 15217990.
  196. "First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover — Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News". Discovery Channel. Retrieved 18 November 2009. page 2
  197. Than, Ker (2008). "New World Settlers Took 20,000-Year Pit Stop". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
  198. "Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q". Genebase Systems. 2009. Retrieved 22 November 2009.
  199. M, Ruhlen (November 1998). "The origin of the Na-Dene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95 (23): 13994–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994. PMC 25007. PMID 9811914.
  200. Zegura, S. L.; Karafet, Tatiana M.; Zhivotovsky, Lev A.; Hammer, Michael F. (2004). "High-Resolution SNPs and Microsatellite Haplotypes Point to a Single, Recent Entry of Native American Y Chromosomes into the Americas". Molecular Biology and Evolution 21 (1): 164–75. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh009. PMID 14595095.
  201. Saillard, Juliette; Forster, Peter; Lynnerup, Niels; Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen; Nørby, Søren (2000). "mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos: The Edge of the Beringian Expansion". The American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (3): 718–26. doi:10.1086/303038. PMC 1287530. PMID 10924403.
  202. Schurr, Theodore G. (2004). "The Peopling of the New World: Perspectives from Molecular Anthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology 33 (1): 551–83. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143932. JSTOR 25064865.
  203. Torroni, Antonio; Schurr, Theodore G.; Yang, Chi-Chuan; Szathmary, Emoke J. E.; Williams, Robert C.; Schanfield, Moses S.; Troup, Gary A.; Knowler, William C.; Lawrence, Dale N.; Weisss, Kenneth M.; Wallace, Douglas C. (1992). "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Amerind and the Nadene populations were founded by two independent migrations". Genetics 130 (1): 153–62. PMC 1204788. PMID 1346260.
  204. Jones, Peter N. (October 2002). American Indian Mtdna, Y Chromosome Genetic Data, and the Peopling of North America. Bauu Institute. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-9721349-1-0. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
  205. 1 2 Raghavan, Maanasa; Skoglund, Pontus; Graf, Kelly E.; Metspalu, Mait; Albrechtsen, Anders; Moltke, Ida; Rasmussen, Simon; Stafford Jr, Thomas W.; Orlando, Ludovic; Metspalu, Ene; Karmin, Monika; Tambets, Kristiina; Rootsi, Siiri; Mägi, Reedik; Campos, Paula F.; Balanovska, Elena; Balanovsky, Oleg; Khusnutdinova, Elza; Litvinov, Sergey; Osipova, Ludmila P.; Fedorova, Sardana A.; Voevoda, Mikhail I.; DeGiorgio, Michael; Sicheritz-Ponten, Thomas; Brunak, Søren; Demeshchenko, Svetlana; Kivisild, Toomas; Villems, Richard; Nielsen, Rasmus; Jakobsson, Mattias; Willerslev, Eske (2014). "Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans". Nature 505 (7481): 87–91. doi:10.1038/nature12736. PMC 4105016. PMID 24256729. Lay summary University of Copenhagen (November 20, 2013).
  206. Kashani, Baharak Hooshiar; Perego, Ugo A.; Olivieri, Anna; Angerhofer, Norman; Gandini, Francesca; Carossa, Valeria; Lancioni, Hovirag; Semino, Ornella; Woodward, Scott R.; Achilli, Alessandro; Torroni, Antonio (2012). "Mitochondrial haplogroup C4c: A rare lineage entering America through the ice-free corridor?". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 147 (1): 35–9. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21614. PMID 22024980.
  207. "Peter Beaumont on Venezuela's President Hugo Chávez - From the Observer - The Observer". the Guardian. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  208. http://mx.tuhistory.com/hoy-en-la-historia/nace-evo-morales-el-primer-presidente-boliviano-de-origen-indigena
  209. http://mexico.cnn.com/bicentenario/2010/07/30/el-indio-que-llego-a-ser-presidente
  210. http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/moctezuma/la-muerte-de-moctezuma-1
  211. http://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/sabes-quien-fue-juan-diego.html

Sources

Books

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Wikisource has the text of a 1905 New International Encyclopedia article about American Indians.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Monday, May 02, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.