Paraoxonase

A 360 degree view of Serum Paraoxonase-1 (1v04)
paraoxonase 1
Identifiers
Symbol PON1
Alt. symbols PON
Entrez 5444
HUGO 9204
OMIM 168820
RefSeq NM_000446
UniProt P27169
Other data
EC number 3.1.8.1
Locus Chr. 7 q21.3
paraoxonase 2
Identifiers
Symbol PON2
Entrez 5445
HUGO 9205
OMIM 602447
RefSeq NM_000305
UniProt Q15165
Other data
EC number 3.1.8.1
Locus Chr. 7 q21.3
paraoxonase 3
Identifiers
Symbol PON3
Entrez 5446
HUGO 9206
OMIM 602720
RefSeq NM_000940
UniProt Q15166
Other data
EC number 3.1.8.1
Locus Chr. 7 q21.3

Paraoxonases are a group, or family, of enzymes consisting of three sub-types that were originally discovered for their involvement in the hydrolysis of organophosphates.[1] Further research has indicated the enzymatic activity of paraoxonases is more diversified than its activity as an organophosphatase. Esterase and Lactonase/Lactonizing activity has also been observed from these enzymes and though the physiologically relevant substrates for these enzymes are unknown, it is likely that lactones are the main substrate (although there is a relatively high level of variation in substrate specificity among these enzymes). Most of the studies on the paraoxonase family have specifically looked at the paraoxonae 1 type, leaving much to be learned about the remaining two.[2] The study of this enzyme family has many potential consequences in preventative medicine and toxicology as well as in certain societal contexts. The genes that encode for these enzymes have a number of different polymorphisms, which created additional interest in the study of this enzyme group and its potential cultural variations.[3] Additional research on the inhibition and selective inhibition, specifically of PON1, has been done to shed some light on the connections between decreases in enzymatic activity of individuals with cardiovascular diseases[4]. Evidence also suggests that this family of enzymes has some role in our innate immune system.[5]

History

PON was identified as an enzyme having organophosphates as its substrates. Reports of the geographic differences in population frequencies of paraoxonase activity and genetic analysis led to uncovering the genetic polymorphism. The name Paraoxonase was given because of its ability to hydrolyze paraoxon, a toxic metabolite that comes from pesticide parathion.[3]

Types

There are 3 known genotypic forms of paraoxonases. They are coded for by the PON set of genes – PON1, PON2 and PON3 – located on the long arm of chromosome 7 in humans.[1][6] The differences between them lie in their location and activity.

Biological Function

Paraoxonases have been found to perform a number of biological functions, though the primary role of this group of enzymes is still a topic of speculation. Some of the observed roles have revealed activities of anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-atherogenic, anti-diabetic, anti-microbial and organophosphate-hydrolyzing properties.[13] Two of the most important known roles that Paraoxonases plays are in functioning as a lactonase and an arylesterase. These properties provide a promising potential for development of new therapeutic interventions to combat a number of heath conditions.[14][15]

Mechanism

One of the proposed lactonase active sites for Serum Paraoxonase-1 identifying relevant residues as well as the catalytic Calcium ion. No substrate was used in this crystalized structure.

The study of this family of enzymes has been something of interest for a number of years now; however, the lack of identifying specific natural substrates and numerous physiological roles has made it difficult in determining mechanisms of action for the diverse number of reactions catalyzed by this enzyme family. One of the more studied mechanisms is the lactonase mechanism of Serum Paraoxonase-1. One of the proposed mechanism outlines the hydrolysis of 5-membered ring lactone substrates by serum Paraoxonase-1. PON1, as with PON2 and PON3, utilizes a catalytic calcium ion, which functions as an oxy-anion to stabilize substrate and reaction states. Additionally, this enzyme active site employs two Histadine residues (His115 and 134) involved in proton transfers, a glutamic acid (Glu53) to stabilize reactive hydrogens, and an Asparagine (Asn168) to stabilize transition states and intermediates in the active site.[15] The exact mechanism is still a subject of further research and it is suggested that the His115 residue is not necessary for the lactonase and arylesterase activity of the enzyme.[13]

Regulation

One of the common inhibitors of enzymatic activity (for PON 1 and PON 3) is lipid peroxides found in the plasma. Lipid peroxides can inhibit Paraoxonase activity as an arylesterase and antioxidant, though the specific inhibition is dependent on the type of lipid head group.[4][9] An important implication of this fact is that, in decreasing the activity of PON1 and PON3, the productivity of preventing oxidation of LDL. Enzyme activity is also regulated by a substrate-dependent polymorphism that occurs at position 192. There are two known isoforms, one having an arginine residue at the 192 position and the other a glutamine, which are associated with high and low enzymatic activity respectively.[16][17]

Clinical Significance

The development of Atherosclerosis is a complex process, though the main underlying feature is simply an increase in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation.[18] PON1 and PON3 prevent the formation of atherogenic oxidised-LDL, the form of LDL present in foam cells of an atheromatous plaque. Because of their know association with high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and their affect on oxidized-LDL, PON1 and PON3 are implicated in lowering the risk of developing coronary artery disease and atherosclerosis.

3D structure

The 3D crytallographic structure of PON1 was determined in 2004.[19]

External links

≠References

  1. 1 2 Bergmeier C, Siekmeier R, Gross W (December 2004). "Distribution spectrum of paraoxonase activity in HDL fractions". Clin. Chem. 50 (12): 2309–15. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2004.034439. PMID 15459089.
  2. Litvinov, Dmitry, Halleh Mahini, and Mahdi Garelnabi. “Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Role of Paraoxonase 1: Implication in Arteriosclerosis Diseases.” North American Journal of Medical Sciences 4.11 (2012): 523–532. PMC. Web. 1 Mar. 2016.
  3. 1 2 Costa, Lucio G., and Clement E. Furlong. Paraoxonase (PON1) in Health and Disease: Basic and Clinical Aspects. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2002. Print.
  4. 1 2 S.D. Nguyen, D.E. Sok. “Oxidative inactivation of Paraoxonase 1 an antioxidant protein and its effect on antioxidant action.” Free Radic Res, 37 (2003), pp. 77–83
  5. Egon A. Ozer, Alejandro Pezzulo, Diana M. Shih, Carlene Chun, Clement Furlong, Aldons J. Lusis, Everett P. Greenberg, Joseph Zabner. Human and murine paraoxonase 1 are host modulators of Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum-sensing FEMS Microbiology Letters Dec 2005, 253 (1) 29-32; DOI: 10.1016/j.femsle.2005.09.023
  6. Li HL, Liu DP, Liang CC (2003). "Paraoxonase gene polymorphisms, oxidative stress, and diseases". JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR MEDICINE 81 (12): 766–779. doi:10.1007/s00109-003-0481-4. PMID 14551701.
  7. Mackness, B., Beltran-Debon, R., Aragones, G., Joven, J., Camps, J. and Mackness, M. (2010), Human tissue distribution of paraoxonases 1 and 2 mRNA. IUBMB Life, 62: 480–482. doi: 10.1002/iub.347
  8. Richter, Rebecca J. et al. “Paraoxonase 1 Status as a Risk Factor for Disease or Exposure.” Advances in experimental medicine and biology 660 (2010): 29–35. PMC. Web. 1 Mar. 2016.
  9. 1 2 Tomas, Marta, Gloria Latorre, Mariano Senti, and Jaume Marrugat. "The Antioxidant Function of High Density Lipoproteins: A New Paradigm in Atherosclerosis." Revista Española De Cardiologia 57.06 (2004): n. pag. Web. 22 Feb. 2016.
  10. Ng CJ, Wadleigh DJ, Gangopadhyay A, et al. (November 2001). "Paraoxonase-2 is a ubiquitously expressed protein with antioxidant properties and is capable of preventing cell-mediated oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein". J. Biol. Chem. 276 (48): 44444–9. doi:10.1074/jbc.M105660200. PMID 11579088.
  11. Reddy ST, Wadleigh DJ, Grijalva V, Ng C, Hama S, Gangopadhyay A, Shih DM, Lusis AJ, Navab M, Fogelman AM (April 2001). "Human paraoxonase-3 is an HDL-associated enzyme with biological activity similar to paraoxonase-1 protein but is not regulated by oxidized lipids". Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 21 (4): 542–7. doi:10.1161/01.ATV.21.4.542. PMID 11304470.
  12. Draganov DI, Teiber JF, Speelman A, et al. Human paraoxonases (PON1, PON2, and PON3) are lactonases with overlapping and distinct substrate specificities. J Lipid Res 2005;46:1239-42
  13. 1 2 Aggarwal G, Prajapati R, Tripathy RK, Bajaj P, Iyengar ARS, Sangamwar AT, et al. (2016) Toward Understanding the Catalytic Mechanism of Human Paraoxonase 1: Site-Specific Mutagenesis at Position 192. PLoS ONE 11(2): e0147999. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147999
  14. Mackness M. I., Durrington P. N., Mackness B. The role of paraoxonase 1 activity in cardiovascular disease: potential for therapeutic intervention. American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs. 2004;4(4):211–217. doi: 10.2165/00129784-200404040-00002
  15. 1 2 Le, Quang Anh Tuan, et al. "Insights into the Lactonase Mechanism of Serum Paraoxonase 1 (PON1): Experimental and Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics (QM/MM) Studies." The journal of physical chemistry. B 119.30 (2015):9571-9585. Web.
  16. Manzo, Luigi. "Organophosphates." Occupational Neurotoxicology. By Lucio G. Costa. N.p.: CRC LLC, 1998. 87-89. Print.
  17. Ruiz J, Blanche H, James RW, Garin MC, Vaisse C, Charpentier G, et al. Gln-Arg192 polymorphism of paraoxonase and coronary heart disease in type 2 diabetes. Lancet. 1995;346:869–72.
  18. Parthasarathy, Sampath et al. “Oxidized Low-Density Lipoprotein.” Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.j.) 610 (2010): 403–417. PMC. Web. 1 Mar. 2016
  19. PDB: 1V04; Proteopedia Paraoxonase; Harel, M. Aharoni, A, Gaidukov, L, Brumshtein, B, Khersonsky, O, Meged, R, Dvir, H, Ravelli, RB, McCarthy, A, Toker, L, Silman, I, Sussman, JL, Tawfik, DS (May 2004). "Structure and evolution of the serum paraoxonase family of detoxifying and anti-atherosclerotic enzymes". Nature Structural & Molecular Biology 11 (8): 412–9. doi:10.1038/nsmb767. PMID 15098021.
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