Sufism

"Sufi" redirects here. For other uses, see Sufi (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with sophism.

Sufism or Tasawwuf[1] (Arabic: تصوف‎), is defined as the inner mystical dimension of Islam. Practitioners of Sufism (Tasawwuf), referred to as Sufis (ṣūfī) (/ˈsuːfi/; صُوفِيّ), often belong to different ṭuruq or "orders"—congregations formed around a grand master referred to as a Mawla who maintains a direct chain of teachers back to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad.[2] These orders meet for spiritual sessions (majalis) in meeting places known as zawiyahs, khanqahs, or tekke.[3] Sufis strive for ihsan (perfection of worship) as detailed in a hadith: "Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees you."[4] Jalaluddin Rumi stated: "The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr."[5] Sufis regard Muhammad as Al-Insān al-Kāmil, which is a concept that describes Muhammad as the primary perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God.[6] Sufis regard Muhammad as their leader and prime spiritual guide.

All Sufi orders trace many of their original precepts from the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, with the notable exception of the Naqshbandi order who claim to trace their origins through the first sunni Caliph, Abu Bakr.[7] Sufi orders are largely Sunni and follow one of the four schools of Sunni Islam and maintain a Sunni Aqidah or creed.[8] Over the years various Sufi orders have been influenced by and adopted into various Shi'ite movements, especially Ismailism, which led to the Safaviyya order's conversion to Shi'ite Islam and the spread of Twelver Shi'ism throughout Persia.[9] Sufi orders include Ba 'Alawiyya, Badawiyya, Bektashi, Burhaniya, Chishti, Khalwati, Mevlevi, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Uwaisi, Qadiria Boutshishia, Qadiriyyah, Qalandariyya, Rifa'i, Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya, Suhrawardiyya, Tijaniyyah, and many others.[10]

Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God".[11] Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the Divine, purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits".[12] Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, define Sufism as purely based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of Muhammad.[13][14][15][16] Some Orientalists, however, have proposed a variety of diverse theories pertaining to the nature of Sufism, such as Sufism being influenced by Neoplatonism or as an Aryan historical reaction against Semite cultural influence.[16] Seyyed Hossein Nasr states that the preceding theories are false according to the point of view of Sufism.[16] According to William Chittick, "In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization and intensification of Islamic faith and practice."[17]

Muslims and mainstream scholars of Islam define Sufism as simply the name for the inner or esoteric dimension of Islam[18] which is supported and complemented by outward or exoteric practices of Islam, such as Islamic law.[19] In this view, "it is absolutely necessary to be a Muslim" to be a true Sufi, because Sufism's "methods are inoperative without" Muslim "affiliation".[20] Orthodox views also maintain that Sufism is unique to Islam.[15][21] In contrast, author Idries Shah states Sufi philosophy is universal in nature, its roots predating the rise of Islam and Christianity.[22] Some neo-Sufis in Western countries allow non-Muslims to receive "instructions on following the Sufi path".[23] Some Muslim opponents of Sufism also consider it outside the sphere of Islam.[18][24]

Classical Sufis were characterised by their asceticism, especially the attachment to dhikr, the practice of repeating the names of God, often performed after prayers.[25] Sufism gained adherents among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750).[26] Sufis have spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium, originally expressing their beliefs in Arabic, before spreading into Persian, Turkish, and Urdu among dozens of other languages.[27]

Terminology

Tasawwuf vs Sufism

Historically, Muslims have used the word Tasawwuf to identify the practice of Sufis.[1] According to traditional Sufis, Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to Islamic law (Shariah).[1] Tasawwuf is considered by these people as inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice.[28] According to Carl Ernst, the term Sufism came into being, not by Islamic texts or Sufis themselves but by British Orientalists who wanted to create an artificial divide between what they found attractive in Islamic civilization (i.e. Islamic Spirituality) and the negative stereotypes that were present in Britain about Islam.[29] These British Orientalists, therefore, fabricated a divide that was previously non-existent.[1][29] The term Sufism has, however, persisted especially in the Western world ever since.

Etymology

Sufi

Two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Commonly, the lexical root of the word is traced to ṣafā (صفاء), which in Arabic means "purity". Another origin is ṣūf (صُوف), "wool" in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore. The two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity".[30][31] Scholars generally agree that ṣūf or "wool" is probably the root word of "Sufi."

Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah ("the people of the bench"), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings of dhikr. These men and women who sat at Al-Masjid al-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufites in existence.[32][33] Abd al-Karīm ibn Hawāzin Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds.[34]

History

Main article: History of Sufism

Origins

Ali is considered to be the "Father of Sufism" in Islamic tradition.[35]

Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri claim that the tradition first began with Ali ibn Abi Talib. Furthermore, Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as the Sheikh of the principals and practices of Sufism.[35]

Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam.[36] According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development.[37] Others have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.[38]

According to Marshall Hodgson, the Muslim conquests had brought large numbers of Christian monks and hermits, especially in Syria and Egypt, under the rule of Muslims. They retained a vigorous spiritual life for centuries after the conquests, and many of the especially pious Muslims who founded Sufism were influenced by their techniques and methods.[39] However, others disagree with this view, asserting Sufism to be unique within the confines of the Islamic religion and contending that Sufism developed from devout followers of Islam, like Bayazid Bastami who in his utmost reverence to the Sunnah refused to eat a watermelon as he did not find any proof that Muhammad ever ate it.[40][41] According to the late Medieval mystic Jami, Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah (died c. 716) was the first person to be called a "Sufi".[34]

Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri, Harith al-Muhasibi and Said ibn al-Musayyib. Ruwaym, from the second generation of Sufis in Baghdad, was also an influential early figure,[42][43] as was Junayd of Baghdad; a number of early practitioners of Sufism were disciples of one of the two.[44]

Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages.[45] The Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to general rule of orders tracing their spiritual lineage through Muhammad's grandsons, as it traces the origin of its teachings from Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.[7]

As an Islamic discipline

Sufism is a mystical-ascetic aspect of Islam. It is not a sect, rather it is considered as the part of Islamic teaching that deals with the purification of the inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[46] Tasawwuf is regarded as a science of Islam that has always been an integral part of Orthodox Islam. In his Al-Risala al-safadiyya, Ibn Taymiyya describes the Sufis as those who belong to the path of the Sunna and represent it in their teachings and writings.

Ibn Taymiyya's Sufi inclinations and his reverence for Sufis like 'Abd al-Qadir Gilani can also be seen in his hundred-page commentary on Futuh al-ghayb, covering only five of the seventy-eight sermons of the book, but showing that he considered tasawwuf essential within the life of the Islamic community.

In his commentary, Ibn Taymiyya stresses that the primacy of the Shari`a forms the soundest tradition in tasawwuf, and to argue this point he lists over a dozen early masters, as well as more contemporary shaykhs like his fellow Hanbalis, al-Ansari al-Harawi and `Abd al-Qadir, and the latter's own shaykh, Hammad al-Dabbas:The upright among the followers of the Path—like the majority of the early shaykhs (shuyukh al-salaf) such as Fudayl ibn `Iyad, Ibrahim ibn Adham, Ma`ruf al-Karkhi, al-Sari al-Saqati, al-Junayd ibn Muhammad, and others of the early teachers, as well as Shaykh Abd al-Qadir, Shaykh Hammad, Shaykh Abu al-Bayan and others of the later masters—do not permit the followers of the Sufi path to depart from the divinely legislated command and prohibition

Imam Ghazali narrates in Al-Munqidh min-al-dalal:

The vicissitudes of life, family affairs and financial constraints engulfed my life and deprived me of the congenial solitude. The heavy odds confronted me and provided me with few moments for my pursuits. This state of affairs lasted for ten years but wherever I had some spare and congenial moments I resorted to my intrinsic proclivity. During these turbulent years, numerous astonishing and indescribable secrets of life were unveiled to me. I was convinced that the group of Aulia (holy mystics) is the only truthful group who follow the right path, display best conduct and surpass all sages in their wisdom and insight. They derive all their overt or covert behaviour from the illumining guidance of the holy Prophet, the only guidance worth quest and pursuit.

Formalization of doctrine

Towards the end of the first millennium, a number of manuals began to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of these are now available in English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjûb of Hujwiri, and the Risâla of Qushayri.[47] Two of Imam Al Ghazali's greatest treatises, the "Revival of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy of Happiness", argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and thus was compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any way contradict Islamic Law—being instead necessary to its complete fulfillment. This became the mainstream position among Islamic scholars for centuries, challenged only recently on the basis of selective use of a limited body of texts. Ongoing efforts by both traditionally trained Muslim scholars and Western academics are making Imam Al-Ghazali's works more widely available in English translation, allowing English-speaking readers to judge for themselves the compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine. Several sections of the Revival of Religious Sciences have been published in translation by the Islamic Texts Society.[48] The Alchemy of Happiness has been published in a complete translation by Claud Field (ISBN 978-0935782288), and presents the argument of the much larger Revival of Religious Sciences in summary form.

Growth of influence

The tomb of Khoja Afāq, near Kashgar, China.

The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the spread of Sufi philosophy in Islam. The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa[49] and Asia. The Senussi tribes of Libya and Sudan are one of the strongest adherents of Sufism. Sufi poets and philosophers such as Khoja Akhmet Yassawi, Rumi, and Attar of Nishapur (c. 1145 – c. 1221) greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture in Anatolia, Central Asia, and South Asia.[50][51] Sufism also played a role in creating and propagating the culture of the Ottoman world,[52] and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa and South Asia.[53]

Between the 13th and 16th centuries, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Golden Age" whose physical artifacts survive. In many places a pious foundation would endow a lodge (known variously as a zaouia, khanqah, or tekke) in perpetuity (waqf) to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also pay for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a hospice with kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this period.[54]

Present

Mawlānā Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey

Current Sufi orders include Azeemia, Alians, Bektashi Order, Mevlevi Order, Ba 'Alawiyya, Chishti, Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Qadiriyyah, Qalandariyya, Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya, Suhrawardiyya, Ashrafia, Saifiah (Naqshbandiah), and Uwaisi (Oveyssi).[10] The relationship of Sufi orders to modern societies is usually defined by their relationship to governments.[55]

Turkey and Persia together have been a center for many Sufi lineages and orders. The Bektashi was closely affiliated with the Ottoman Janissary and is the heart of Turkey's large and mostly liberal Alevi population. It has been spread westwards to Cyprus, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Bosnia, Kosovo, and, more recently, to the USA (via Albania).

Sufism is popular in such African countries as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Senegal, where it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam.[56] Sufism is traditional in Morocco but has seen a growing revival with the renewal of Sufism around contemporary spiritual teachers such as Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutshishi. Mbacke suggests that one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical.[57]

The life of the Algerian Sufi master Emir Abd al-Qadir is instructive in this regard.[58] Notable as well are the lives of Amadou Bamba and Hajj Umar Tall in sub-Saharan Africa, and Sheikh Mansur Ushurma and Imam Shamil in the Caucasus region. In the twentieth century some Muslims have called Sufism a superstitious religion that holds back Islamic achievement in the fields of science and technology.[59]

A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path of Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as an official representative of a Sufi order, and with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was the Swedish-born wandering Sufi Abd al-Hadi Aqhili (also known as Ivan Aguéli). René Guénon, the French scholar, became a Sufi in the early twentieth century and was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings defined the practice of Sufism as the essence of Islam but also pointed to the universality of its message. Other spiritualists, such as G. I. Gurdjieff, may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox Muslims.

Other noteworthy Sufi teachers who have been active in the West in recent years include Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Inayat Khan, Nazim Al-Haqqani, Javad Nurbakhsh, Bulent Rauf, Irina Tweedie, Idries Shah, Muzaffer Ozak, Nahid Angha, and Ali Kianfar.

Currently active Sufi academics and publishers include Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee, Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Abdullah Nooruddeen Durkee, Waheed Ashraf, Omer Tarin, and Abdal Hakim Murad.

Aims and objectives

The tomb of Sheikh Rukn-ud-Din Abul Fath located in Multan, Pakistan. The city of Multan is known for various Sufi Saint tombs, as they call it the City of Saints

While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to Allah and hope to become close to Allah in Paradise—after death and after the "Final Judgment"—Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw closer to Allah and to more fully embrace the Divine Presence in this life.[60] The chief aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasing of Allah by working to restore within themselves the primordial state of fitra,[61] described in the Qur'an. In this state nothing one does defies Allah, and all is undertaken with the single motivation of love of Allah.

To Sufis, the outer law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, judicial rulings, and criminal law—what is often referred to, broadly, as qanun. The inner law of Sufism consists of rules about repentance from sin, the purging of contemptible qualities and evil traits of character, and adornment with virtues and good character.[62]

Teachings

Entrance of Sidi Boumediene mosque in Tlemcen, Algeria, built to honor 12th century Sufi master Abu Madyan

To the Sufi, it is the transmission of divine light from the teacher's heart to the heart of the student, rather than worldly knowledge, that allows the adept to progress. They further believe that the teacher should attempt inerrantly to follow the Divine Law.[63]

According to Moojan Momen "one of the most important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of the "Perfect Man" (al-Insan al-Kamil). This doctrine states that there will always exist upon the earth a "Qutb" (Pole or Axis, of the Universe)—a man who is the perfect channel of grace from Allah to man and in a state of wilaya (sanctity, being under the protection of Allah). The concept of the Sufi Qutb is similar to that of the Shi'i Imam.[64][65] However, this belief puts Sufism in "direct conflict" with Shi'ism, since both the Qutb (who for most Sufi orders is the head of the order) and the Imam fulfill the role of "the purveyor of spiritual guidance and of Allah's grace to mankind". The vow of obedience to the Shaykh or Qutb which is taken by Sufis is considered incompatible with devotion to the Imam".[64]

As a further example, the prospective adherent of the Mevlevi Order would have been ordered to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1,001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that instruction.[66]

The Darbar Sharif of Shams Ali Qalandar located in Hujra Shah Muqeem, Pakistan

Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor.[67] Although approaches to teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic forms of mysticism (e.g., as in the books of Hossein Nasr).

Many Sufi believe that to reach the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires that the disciple live with and serve the teacher for a long period of time. An example is the folk story about Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari, who gave his name to the Naqshbandi Order. He is believed to have served his first teacher, Sayyid Muhammad Baba As-Samasi, for 20 years, until as-Samasi died. He is said to then have served several other teachers for lengthy periods of time. He is said to have helped the poorer members of the community for many years and after this concluded his teacher directed him to care for animals cleaning their wounds, and assisting them.[68]

Muhammad

“ His [Muhammad's] aspiration preceded all other aspirations, his existence preceded nothingness, and his name preceded the Pen, because he existed before all peoples. There is not in the horizons, beyond the horizons or below the horizons, anyone more elegant, more noble, more knowing, more just, more fearsome, or more compassionate, than the subject of this tale. He is the leader of created beings, the one "whose name is glorious Ahmad"[Quran 61:6].

—Mansur Al-Hallaj[69]

 ”

According to Carl W. Ernst, devotion to the Islamic prophet Muhammad is an exceptionally strong practice within Sufism.[70] Sufis have historically revered Muhammad as the prime personality of spiritual greatness. The Sufi poet, Saadi Shirazi stated, "He who chooses a path contrary to that of the prophet [Muhammad], shall never reach the destination. O Saadi, do not think that one can treat that way of purity except in the wake of the chosen one [Muhammad]."[71] Rumi attributes his self-control and abstinence from worldly desires as qualities attained by him through the guidance of Muhammad. Rumi states, "I "sewed" my two eyes shut from [desires for] this world and the next – this I learned from Muhammad."[72] Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the greatest man ever and states "Muhammad's wisdom is uniqueness (fardiya) because he is the most perfect existent creature of this human species. For this reason, the command began with him and was sealed with him. He was a Prophet while Adam was between water and clay, and his elemental structure is the Seal of the Prophets."[73] Fariduddin Attar claimed that he praised Muhammad in such a manner that was not done before by any poet, in his book the Ilahi-nama.[74] Fariduddin Attar stated "Muhammad is the exemplar to both worlds, the guide of the descendants of Adam. He is the sun of creation, the moon of the celestial spheres, the all-seeing eye...The seven heavens and the eight gardens of paradise were created for him, he is both the eye and the light in the light of our eyes."[75] Sufis have historically stressed the importance of Muhammad's perfection and his ability to intercede. The persona of Muhammad has historically been and remains an integral and critical aspect of Sufi belief and practice.[70] The Sufi, Bayazid Bastami is recorded to have been so devoted to the Sunnah of Muhammad, that he refused to eat a watermelon due to the fact that he could not establish that Muhammad ever ate one.[76]

The name of Muhammad in Arabic calligraphy. Sufis believe the name of Muhammad is holy and sacred.

In the 13th century, a Sufi poet from Egypt, Al-Busiri, wrote the al-Kawākib ad-Durrīya fī Madḥ Khayr al-Barīya (The Celestial Lights in Praise of the Best of Creation) commonly referred to as Qaṣīdat al-Burda (Poem of the Mantle), in which he extensively praised Muhammad.[77] This poem is still widely recited and sung amongst Sufi groups all over the world.[77]

Ibn Arabi's beliefs about Muhammad

According to Ibn Arabi, Islam is the best religion because of Muhammad.[6] Ibn Arabi regards that the first entity that was brought into existence is the reality or essence of Muhammad (al-haqiqa al-Muhammadiyya). Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the supreme human being and master of all creatures. Muhammad is therefore the primary role-model for human beings to aspire to emulate.[6] Ibn Arabi believes that God's attributes and names are manifested in this world and that the most complete and perfect display of these divine attributes and names are seen in Muhammad.[6] Ibn Arabi believes that one may see God in the mirror of Muhammad, meaning that the divine attributes of God are manifested through Muhammad.[6] Ibn Arabi maintains that Muhammad is the best proof of God and by knowing Muhammad one knows God.[6] Ibn Arabi also maintains that Muhammad is the master of all of humanity in both this world and the afterlife. In this view, Islam is the best religion, because Muhammad is Islam.[6]

Sufism and Islamic law

Tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Sufis believe the sharia (exoteric "canon"), tariqa (esoteric "order") and haqiqa ("truth") are mutually interdependent.[78]

The tariqa, the 'path' on which the mystics walk, has been defined as 'the path which comes out of the sharia, for the main road is called branch, the path, tariq.' No mystical experience can be realized if the binding injunctions of the sharia are not followed faithfully first. The tariqa however, is narrower and more difficult to walk.

It leads the adept, called salik or "wayfarer", in his sulûk or "road" through different stations (maqaam) until he reaches his goal, the perfect tawhîd, the existential confession that God is One.[79] Shaykh al-Akbar Muhiuddeen Ibn Arabi mentions, "When we see someone in this Community who claims to be able to guide others to God, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law—even if he manifests miracles that stagger the mind—asserting that his shortcoming is a special dispensation for him, we do not even turn to look at him, for such a person is not a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is entrusted with the secrets of God Most High save one in whom the ordinances of the Sacred Law are preserved. (Jami' karamat al-awliya')".[80]

The Amman Message, a detailed statement issued by 200 leading Islamic scholars in 2005 in Amman, and adopted by the Islamic world's political and temporal leaderships at the Organisation of the Islamic Conference summit at Mecca in December 2005, and by six other international Islamic scholarly assemblies including the International Islamic Fiqh Academy of Jeddah, in July 2006, specifically recognized the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam—however the definition of Sufism can vary drastically between different traditions (what may be intended is simple tazkiah as opposed to the various manifestations of Sufism around the Islamic world).[81]

Traditional Islamic thought and Sufism

The literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective matters that resist outside observation, such as the subtle states of the heart. Often these resist direct reference or description, with the consequence that the authors of various Sufi treatises took recourse to allegorical language. For instance, much Sufi poetry refers to intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the Sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars.

For these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complex and a range of scholarly opinion on Sufism in Islam has been the norm. Some scholars, such as Al-Ghazali, helped its propagation while other scholars opposed it. W. Chittick explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:

In short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understanding the normative guidelines for the body came to be known as jurists, and those who held that the most important task was to train the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided into three main schools of thought: theology, philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with the third domain of human existence, the spirit. Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the spiritual dimensions of the human person came to be known as Sufis.

Traditional and Neo-Sufi groups

The mausoleum (gongbei) of Ma Laichi in Linxia City, China.

The traditional Sufi orders, which are in majority, emphasize the role of Sufism as a spiritual discipline within Islam. Therefore, the Sharia (traditional Islamic law) and the Sunnah are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous Sufi masters of the past Caliphates were experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and practice Sufism one must be an observant Muslim.

"Neo-Sufism," "pseudo-Sufism," and "universal Sufism" are terms used to denote forms of Sufism that do not require adherence to Shariah, or a Muslim faith. The terms are not always accepted by those it is applied to. The Universal Sufism movement was founded by Inayat Khan, teaches the essential unity of all faiths, and accepts members of all creeds. Sufism Reoriented is an offshoot of Khan's Western Sufism charted by the syncretistic teacher Meher Baba. The Golden Sufi Center exists in England, Switzerland and the United States. It was founded by Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee to continue the work of his teacher Irina Tweedie, herself a practitioner of both Hinduism and neo-Sufism. The Afghan-Scottish teacher Idries Shah has been described as a neo-Sufi by the Gurdjieffian James Moore.[82] Other Western Sufi organisations include the Sufi Foundation of America and the International Association of Sufism.

Western Neo-Sufi practices may differ from traditional forms, for instance having mixed-gender meetings and less emphasis on the Qur'an.

Theoretical perspectives

The works of Al-Ghazali firmly defended the concepts of Sufism within the Islamic faith.

Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major branches within the practice of Sufism, and use this as one key to differentiating among the approaches of different masters and devotional lineages.[83]

On the one hand there is the order from the signs to the Signifier (or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch, the seeker begins by purifying the lower self of every corrupting influence that stands in the way of recognizing all of creation as the work of God, as God's active Self-disclosure or theophany.[84] This is the way of Imam Al-Ghazali and of the majority of the Sufi orders.

On the other hand, there is the order from the Signifier to His signs, from the Artisan to His works. In this branch the seeker experiences divine attraction (jadhba), and is able to enter the order with a glimpse of its endpoint, of direct apprehension of the Divine Presence towards which all spiritual striving is directed. This does not replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other branch; it simply stems from a different point of entry into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders.[85]

Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed to the late Ottoman scholar Said Nursi and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary called the Risale-i Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad, in the understanding that this wont, or sunnah, proposes a complete devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to a master of the Sufi way.[86]

Contributions to other domains of scholarship

Sufism has contributed significantly to the elaboration of theoretical perspectives in many domains of intellectual endeavor. For instance, the doctrine of "subtle centers" or centers of subtle cognition (known as Lataif-e-sitta) addresses the matter of the awakening of spiritual intuition.[87] In general, these subtle centers or latâ'if are thought of as faculties that are to be purified sequentially in order to bring the seeker's wayfaring to completion. A concise and useful summary of this system from a living exponent of this tradition has been published by Muhammad Emin Er.[83]

Sufi psychology has influenced many areas of thinking both within and outside of Islam, drawing primarily upon three concepts. Ja'far al-Sadiq (both an imam in the Shia tradition and a respected scholar and link in chains of Sufi transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human beings are dominated by a lower self called the nafs, a faculty of spiritual intuition called the qalb or spiritual heart, and a spirit or soul called ruh. These interact in various ways, producing the spiritual types of the tyrant (dominated by nafs), the person of faith and moderation (dominated by the spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for God (dominated by the ruh).[88]

Of note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in the West is Robert Frager, a Sufi teacher authorized in the Khalwati Jerrahi order. Frager was a trained psychologist, born in the United States, who converted to Islam in the course of his practice of Sufism and wrote extensively on Sufism and psychology.[89]

Sufi cosmology and Sufi metaphysics are also noteworthy areas of intellectual accomplishment.

Devotional practices

Sufi gathering engaged in Dhikr

The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. This is because an acknowledged and authorized master of the Sufi path is in effect a physician of the heart, able to diagnose the seeker's impediments to knowledge and pure intention in serving God, and to prescribe to the seeker a course of treatment appropriate to his or her maladies. The consensus among Sufi scholars is that the seeker cannot self-diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to undertake any of these practices alone and without formal authorization.[90]

Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its five prescribed times each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker ought to be firmly grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life of Muhammad (such as the "sunna prayers"). This is in accordance with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a famous Hadith Qudsi:

My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love more than that which I have made obligatory for him. My servant never ceases drawing near to Me through supererogatory works until I love him. Then, when I love him, I am his hearing through which he hears, his sight through which he sees, his hand through which he grasps, and his foot through which he walks.

It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed (Aqidah),[91] and to embrace with certainty its tenets.[92] The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this world, the love of company and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the lower self. (The way in which this purification of the heart is achieved is outlined in certain books, but must be prescribed in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also be trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds which have accrued to his or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance, envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and now).

Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not a means for gaining knowledge. The traditional scholars of Sufism hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a psychological state generated through breath control. Thus, practice of "techniques" is not the cause, but instead the occasion for such knowledge to be obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far more important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken person, stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the words of Imam Al-Ghazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.[93]

Magic may have also been a part of some Sufi practices, notably in India.[94] The practice of magic intensified during the declining years of Sufism in India when the Sufi orders grew steadily in wealth and in political influence while their spirituality gradually declined and they concentrated on saint veneration, miracle working, magic and superstition.

Dhikr

Main article: Dhikr
Allah as having been written on the disciple's heart according to Sarwari Qadri Order

Dhikr is the remembrance of Allah commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims through a specific devotional act, such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from hadith literature and the Qur'an. More generally, dhikr takes a wide range and various layers of meaning.[95] This includes dhikr as any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of Allah. To engage in dhikr is to practice consciousness of the Divine Presence and love, or "to seek a state of godwariness". The Qur'an refers to Muhammad as the very embodiment of dhikr of Allah (65:10–11). Some types of dhikr are prescribed for all Muslims and do not require Sufi initiation or the prescription of a Sufi master because they are deemed to be good for every seeker under every circumstance.[96]

The Dhikr may slightly vary among each order. Some Sufi orders[97] engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, or sema. Sema includes various forms of worship such as: recitation, singing (the most well known being the Qawwali music of the Indian subcontinent), instrumental music, dance (most famously the Sufi whirling of the Mevlevi order), incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance.[98]

Some Sufi orders stress and place extensive reliance upon Dhikr. This practice of Dhikr is called Dhikr-e-Qulb (invocation of Allah within the heartbeats). The basic idea in this practice is to visualize the Allah as having been written on the disciple's heart.[99]

Muraqaba

Main article: Muraqaba

The practice of muraqaba can be likened to the practices of meditation attested in many faith communities.[100] The word muraqaba is derived from the same root (r-q-b) occurring as one of the 99 Names of God in the Qur'an, al-Raqîb, meaning "the Vigilant" and attested in verse 4:1 of the Qur'an. Through muraqaba, a person watches over or takes care of the spiritual heart, acquires knowledge about it, and becomes attuned to the Divine Presence, which is ever vigilant.

While variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:

He is to collect all of his bodily senses in concentration, and to cut himself off from all preoccupation and notions that inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full consciousness towards God Most High while saying three times: "Ilahî anta maqsûdî wa-ridâka matlûbî—my God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek". Then he brings to his heart the Name of the Essence—Allâh—and as it courses through his heart he remains attentive to its meaning, which is "Essence without likeness". The seeker remains aware that He is Present, Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his saying (may God bless him and grant him peace): "Worship God as though you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees you". And likewise the prophetic tradition: "The most favored level of faith is to know that God is witness over you, wherever you may be".[101]

Sufi whirling

Main article: Sufi whirling
Whirling Dervishes, at Rumi Fest 2007.

Sufi whirling (or Sufi spinning) is a form of Sama or physically active meditation which originated among Sufis, and which is still practiced by the Sufi Dervishes of the Mevlevi order. It is a customary dance performed within the Sema, or worship ceremony, through which dervishes (also called semazens, from Persian سماعزن) aim to reach the source of all perfection, or kemal. This is sought through abandoning one's nafs, egos or personal desires, by listening to the music, focusing on God, and spinning one's body in repetitive circles, which has been seen as a symbolic imitation of planets in the Solar System orbiting the sun.[102] As explained by Sufis:[103]

In the symbolism of the Sema ritual, the semazen's camel's hair hat (sikke) represents the tombstone of the ego; his wide, white skirt (tennure) represents the ego's shroud. By removing his black cloak (hırka), he is spiritually reborn to the truth. At the beginning of the Sema, by holding his arms crosswise, the semazen appears to represent the number one, thus testifying to God's unity. While whirling, his arms are open: his right arm is directed to the sky, ready to receive God's beneficence; his left hand, upon which his eyes are fastened, is turned toward the earth. The semazen conveys God's spiritual gift to those who are witnessing the Sema. Revolving from right to left around the heart, the semazen embraces all humanity with love. The human being has been created with love in order to love. Mevlâna Jalâluddîn Rumi says, "All loves are a bridge to Divine love. Yet, those who have not had a taste of it do not know!"

Visitation

In popular Sufism (i.e., devotional practices that have achieved currency in world cultures through Sufi influence), one common practice is to visit or make pilgrimages to the tombs of saints, great scholars, and righteous people. This is a particularly common practice in South Asia, where famous tombs include those of Afāq Khoja, near Kashgar, in China; Lal Shahbaz Qalander, in Sindh, Ali Hajwari in Lahore Bawaldin Zikrya in Multan Pakistan; Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, India; Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India, and Shah Jalal in Sylhet, Bangladesh. Likewise, in Fez, Morocco, a popular destination for such pious visitation is the Zaouia Moulay Idriss II and the yearly visitation to see the current Sheikh of the Qadiri Boutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the Mawlid (which is usually televised on Moroccan National television). The purpose of such visitations is usually two-fold, first and foremost the aim is to receive spiritual guidance and blessings from the Saint who rests in the shrine, which helps the Seeker in his or her own path towards enlightenment. Secondly, the Saint is also approached for intercession in prayers, be it in worldly matters or religious.

Persecution

Sufis and Sufism has been subject to destruction of Sufi shrines and mosques, suppression of orders, and discrimination against adherents in a number of Muslim countries where most Sufis live. The Turkish Republican state banned all the different Sufi orders and closed their institutions in 1925 after Sufis opposed the new secular order. The Iranian Islamic Republic has harassed Shia Sufi, reportedly for their lack of support for the government doctrine of "velayat-e faqih" (i.e., that the supreme Shiite jurist should be the nation's political leader). In most other Muslim countries, attacks on Sufis and especially their shrines has come from some Muslims from the more puritanical schools of thought who believe Sufi practices such as celebration of the birthdays of Sufi saints, and Dhikr ("remembrance" of God) ceremonies[104] are Bid‘ah or impure innovation, and polytheistic (Shirk).[105][106]

History

Ali Dede the Bosnian's book Three Hundred Sixty Sufi Questions.

During the Safavid era of Iran, "both the wandering dervishes of 'low' Sufism" and "the philosopher-ulama of 'high' Sufism came under relentless pressure" from powerful cleric Muhammad Baqir Majlisi (d1110/1699). Majlisi—"one of the most powerful and influential" Twelver Shi'a ulama "of all time"—was famous for (among other things), suppression of Sufism, which he and his followers believed paid insufficient attention to Shariah law. Prior to Majlisi's rise, Shiism and Sufism had been "closely linked".[107]

In 1843, the Senussi Sufi were forced to flee Mecca and Medina and head to Sudan and Libya.[26][108]

According to a 2005 article in The Guardian:

Before the first world war there were almost 100,000 disciples of the Mevlevi order throughout the Ottoman empire. But in 1925, as part of his desire to create a modern, western-orientated, secular state, Atatürk banned all the different Sufi orders and closed their tekkes. Pious foundations were suspended and their endowments expropriated; Sufi hospices were closed and their contents seized; all religious titles were abolished and dervish clothes outlawed. [...] In 1937, Atatürk went even further, prohibiting by law any form of traditional music, especially the playing of the ney, the Sufis' reed flute.[109][110]

Current attacks

In recent years, Sufi shrines, and sometimes Sufi mosques, have been damaged or destroyed in many parts of the Muslim world. Some Sufi adherents have been killed as well. Ali Gomaa, a Sufi scholar and Grand Mufti of Al Azhar, has criticized the destruction of shrines and public property as unacceptable.[111]

Pakistan

Tomb of Syed Abdul Rahim Shah Bukhari constructed by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

Since March 2005, 209 people have been killed and 560 injured in 29 different terrorist attacks targeting shrines devoted to Sufi saints in Pakistan, according to data compiled by the Center for Islamic Research Collaboration and Learning (CIRCLe).[112] At least as of 2010, the attacks have increased each year. The attacks are generally attributed to banned militant organizations of Deobandi or Ahl-e-Hadith (Salafi) backgrounds.[113] (Primarily Deobandi background according to another source—author John R. Schmidt).[114] Deobandi and Barelvi being the "two major sub-sects" of Sunni Muslims in South Asia[115] that have clashed—sometimes violently—since the late 1970s in Pakistan.[115] Although Barelvi are fully described as Sunni Sufis,[116] whether the destruction and death is a result of Deobandi's banned militant organizations persecution of Sufis (Barelvus).[117]

In 2005, the militant organizations began attacking "symbols" of the Barelvi community such as mosques, prominent religious leaders, and shrines.[113]

Timeline
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Pakistani faith healers are known as pirs, a term that applies to the descendants of Sufi Muslim saints. Under Sufism, those descendants are thought to serve as conduits to God. The popularity of pirs as a viable healthcare alternative stems from the fact that, in much of rural Pakistan, clinics don't exist or are dismissed as unreliable.[127]
and suppressing it has been a cause of "extremist" Muslims there.[128]
2010
2011
2012

Kashmir, India

In this predominately Muslim, traditionally Sufi region,[139] some six places of worship have been either completely or partially burnt in "mysterious fires" in several months leading up to November 2012.[140] The most prominent victim of damage was the Dastageer Sahib Sufi shrine in Srinagar which burned in June 2012, injuring 20.[141] While investigators have so far found no sign of arson, according to journalist Amir Rana the fires have occurred within the context of a surging Salafi movement which preaches that "Kashmiri tradition of venerating the tombs and relics of saints is outside the pale of Islam".[140]

mourners outside the burning shrine cursed the Salafis for creating an atmosphere of hate, [while] some Salafis began posting incendiary messages on Facebook, terming the destruction of the shrine a "divine act of God".[140]

Somalia

Under the Al-Shabab rule in Somali, Sufi ceremonies were banned[142] and shrines destroyed.[143] As the power of Al-Shabab has waned, however, Sufi ceremonies are said to have "re-emerged".[144] Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a Sufi Militants, backed by Ethiopia and the Federal government, control parts of central Somalia and some cities in the southern regions of Gedo and Bakool.

Mali

In the ancient city of Timbuktu, sometimes called "the city of 333 saints", UNESCO reports that as many as half of the city's shrines "have been destroyed in a display of fanaticism", as of July 2012. A spokesman for Ansar Dine has stated that "the destruction is a divine order", and that the group had plans to destroy every single Sufi shrine in the city, "without exception".[145] In Gao and Kidal, as well as Timbuktu, Salafi Islamists have destroyed musical instruments and driven musicians (music is not Haraam under Sufi Islam) into "economic exile" away from Mali.[146]

International Criminal Court Chief Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda described the Islamists' actions as a "war crime".[147][148]

Egypt

A May 2010 ban by the ministry of awqaf (religious endowments) of centuries old Sufi dhikr gatherings (devoted to the remembrance of God, and including dancing and religious songs) has been described as a "another victory for extreme Salafi thinking at the expense of Egypt's moderate Sufism". Clashes followed at Cairo's Al-Hussein Mosque and al-Sayyida Zeinab mosques between members of Sufi orders and security forces who forced them to evacuate the two shrines.[104] In 2009, the moulid of al-Sayyida Zeinab, Muhammad's granddaughter, was banned ostensibly over concern over the spread of swine flu[149] but also at the urging of Salafis.[104]

According to Gaber Qassem, deputy of the Sufi Orders, approximately 14 shrines have been violated in Egypt since the January 2011 revolution. According to Sheikh Tarek El-Rifai, head of the Rifai Sufi Order, a number of Salafis have prevented Sufi prayers in Al-Haram. Sheikh Rifai said that the order's lawyer has filed a report at the Al-Haram police station to that effect. In early April 2011, a Sufi march from Al-Azhar Mosque to Al-Hussein Mosque was followed by a massive protest before Al-Hussein Mosque, "expressing outrage at the destruction" of Sufi shrines. The Islamic Research Centre of Egypt, led by Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Ahmed El-Tayeb, has also renounced the attacks on the shrines.[106] According to the Muslim Brotherhood website ikhwanweb.com, in 2011 "a memorandum was submitted to the Armed Forces" citing 20 "encroachments" on Sufi shrines.[111]

Libya

Following the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi, several Sufi religious sites in Libya were deliberately destroyed or damaged.[150] In the weeks leading up to September 2012, "armed groups motivated by their religious views" attacked Sufi religious sites across the country, "destroying several mosques and tombs of Sufi religious leaders and scholars".[151] Perpetrators were described as "groups that have a strict Islamic ideology where they believe that graves and shrines must be desecrated." Libyan Interior Minister Fawzi Abdel A'al, was quoted as saying, "If all shrines in Libya are destroyed so we can avoid the death of one person [in clashes with security forces], then that is a price we are ready to pay."[151]

In September 2012, three people were killed in clashes between residents of Rajma (50 km south-east of Benghazi) and "Salafist Islamists" trying to destroy a Sufi shrine in Rajma, the Sidi al-Lafi mausoleum.[152] In August 2012 the United Nations cultural agency Unesco urged Libyan authorities to protect Sufi mosques and shrines from attacks by Islamic hardliners "who consider the traditional mystical school of Islam heretical". The attacked have "wrecked mosques in at least three cities and desecrated many graves of revered Sufi scholars".[153]

Tunisia

In an article on the rise of Salafism in Tunisia, the media site Al-Monitor reported that 39 Sufi shrines were destroyed or desecrated in Tunisia, from the 2011 revolution to January 2013.[154]

Russia, Dagestan

Said Atsayev—also known as Sheikh Said Afandi al-Chirkavi—a prominent 74-year-old Sufi Muslim spiritual leader in Dagestan Russia, was killed by a suicide bombing August 28, 2012 along with six of his followers. His murder follows "similar religiously motivated killings" in Dagestan and regions of ex-Soviet Central Asia, targeting religious leaders—not necessarily Sufi—who disapprove of violent jihad. Afandi had survived previous attempts on his life and was reportedly in the process of negotiating a peace agreement between the Sufis and Salafis.[155][156][157]

Iran

The book Mystic Regimes. Sufism and the State in Iran, from the late Qajar era to the Islamic Republic by Matthijs van den Bos discusses the status of Sufism in Iran in the 19th and 20th century.[158] According to Seyed Mostafa Azmayesh, an expert on Sufism and the representative of the Ni'matullāhī order outside Iran, a campaign against the Sufis in Iran (or at least Shia Sufis) began in 2005 when several books were published arguing that because Sufis follow their own spiritual leaders do not believe in the Islamic state's principle of "velayat-e faqih" (i.e., that the supreme Shiite jurist should be the nation's political leader), Sufis should be treated as second-class citizens. They should not be allowed to have government jobs, and if they already have them, should be identified and fired.[159]

Since 2005 the Ni'matullāhī order—Iran's largest Sufi order—have come under increasing state pressure. Three of their houses of worship have been demolished. Officials accused the Sufis of not having building permits and of narcotics possession—charges the Sufis reject.[159]

The government of Iran is considering an outright ban on Sufism, according to the 2009 Annual Report of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom.[160] It also reports:

In February 2009, at least 40 Sufis in Isfahan were arrested after protesting the destruction of a Sufi place of worship; all were released within days.

In January, Jamshid Lak, a Gonabadi Dervish from the Nematollahi Sufi order was flogged 74 times after being convicted in 2006 of slander following his public allegation of ill-treatment by a Ministry of Intelligence official.

In late December 2008, after the closure of a Sufi place of worship, authorities arrested without charge at least six members of the Gonabadi Dervishes on Kish Island and confiscated their books and computer equipment; their status is unknown.

In November 2008, Amir Ali Mohammad Labaf was sentenced to a five-year prison term, 74 lashes, and internal exile to the southeastern town of Babak for spreading lies, based on his membership in the Nematollahi Gonabadi Sufi order.

In October, at least seven Sufi Muslims in Isfahan, and five others in Karaj, were arrested because of their affiliation with the Nematollahi Gonabadi Sufi order; they remain in detention.

In November 2007, clashes in the western city of Borujerd between security forces and followers of a mystic Sufi order resulted in dozens of injuries and the arrests of approximately 180 Sufi Muslims. The clashes occurred after authorities began bulldozing a Sufi monastery. It is unclear how many remain in detention or if any charges have been brought against those arrested. During the past year, there were numerous reports of Shi'a clerics and prayer leaders, particularly in Qom, denouncing Sufism and the activities of Sufi Muslims in the country in both sermons and public statements.[160]

In 2009 the mausoleum of the 19th century Sufi poet Nasir Ali and an adjoining Sufi prayer house were bulldozed.[161]

Not all Sufis in Iran have been subject to government pressure. Sunni dervish orders—such as the Qhaderi dervishes—in the Sunni-populated parts of the country are thought by some to be seen as allies of the government against Al-Qaeda.[159]

Prominent Sufis

Abul Hasan al-Shadhili

Geometric tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz.
A manuscript of Sufi Islamic theology, Shams al-Ma'arif (translated as The Book of the Sun of Gnosis) was written by the Algerian Sufi master Ahmad al-Buni during the 12th century

Abul Hasan al-Shadhili (died 1258 ), the founder of the Shadhiliyya Sufi order, introduced dhikr jahri (The method of remembering Allah through loud means). Sufi orders generally preach to deny oneself and to destroy the ego-self (nafs) and its worldly desires. This is sometimes characterized as the "Order of Patience-Tariqus Sabr". In contrast, Imam Shadhili taught that his followers need not abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to be grateful for what God has bestowed upon them.[162] This notion, known as the "Order of Gratitude-Tariqush Shukr", was espoused by Imam Shadhili. Imam Shadhili gave eighteen valuable hizbs (litanies) to his followers out of which the notable Hizbul Bahr[163] is recited worldwide even today.

Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani

Al-Sayyid Muhiyudin Abu Muhammad Abdal Qadir Al-Jilani Al-Hasani Wal-Hussaini (born 11 Rabi al-Thani), 470 Hijri, in the town of Na'if, district of Gilan, Ilam Province Or Amol of Tabarestan, Persia, died 8 Rabi al-Awwal 561 AH, in Baghdad, (1077–1166 ), was a Persian Hanbali jurist and Sufi based in Baghdad. Qadiriyya was his patronym. Al Gilani spent his early life in Na'if, the town of his birth. There, he pursued the study of Hanbali law. Abu Ali al-Mukharrimi gave Al Gilani lessons in Fiqh. He was given lessons about Hadith by Abu Bakr ibn Muzaffar. He was given lessons about Tafsir by Abu Muhammad Ja'far, a commentator. In Tasawwuf, his spiritual instructor was Abu'l-Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al-Dabbas. After completing his education, Gilani left Baghdad. He spent twenty-five years as a reclusive wanderer in the desert regions of Iraq. In 1127, Al Gilani returned to Baghdad and began to preach to the public. He joined the teaching staff of the school belonging to his own teacher, al-Mukharrimii, and was popular with students. In the morning he taught hadith and tafsir, and in the afternoon he held discourse on the science of the heart and the virtues of the Qur'an. He was said to have been a convincing preacher and converted numerous Jews and Christians to Islam.

Bayazid Bastami

Bayazid Bastami is a very well recognized and influential Sufi personality. Bastami was born in 804 in Bastam. Bayazid is regarded for his devout commitment to the Sunnah and his dedication to fundamental Islamic principals and practices.

Ibn Arabi

Muhyiddin Muhammad b. 'Ali Ibn 'Arabi (or Ibn al-'Arabi) AH 561- AH 638 (July 28, 1165 – November 10, 1240) is considered to be one of the most important Sufi masters, although he never founded any order (tariqa). His writings, especially al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-hikam, have been studied within all the Sufi orders as the clearest expression of tawhid (Divine Unity), though because of their recondite nature they were often only given to initiates. Later those who followed his teaching became known as the school of wahdat al-wujud (the Oneness of Being). He himself considered his writings to have been divinely inspired. As he expressed the Way to one of his close disciples, his legacy is that 'you should never ever abandon your servant-hood ('ubudiyya), and that there may never be in your soul a longing for any existing thing'.[164]

Junayd Baghdadi

Junayd Baghdadi (830–910 ) was one of the great early Sufis. His order was Junaidia, which links to the golden chain of many Sufi orders. He laid the groundwork for sober mysticism in contrast to that of God-intoxicated Sufis like al-Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. During the trial of al-Hallaj, his former disciple, the Caliph of the time demanded his fatwa. In response, he issued this fatwa: "From the outward appearance he is to die and we judge according to the outward appearance and God knows better". He is referred to by Sufis as Sayyid-ut Taifa—i.e., the leader of the group. He lived and died in the city of Baghdad.

Moinuddin Chishti

A Mughal era, Sufi Prayer Book from the Chishti order.

Moinuddin Chishti was born in 1141 and died in 1236 . Also known as Gharīb Nawāz "Benefactor of the Poor", he is the most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order of the Indian Subcontinent. Moinuddin Chishti introduced and established the order in the subcontinent. The initial spiritual chain or silsila of the Chishti order in India, comprising Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, Nizamuddin Auliya (each successive person being the disciple of the previous one), constitutes the great Sufi saints of Indian history. Moinuddin Chishtī turned towards India, reputedly after a dream in which Muhammad blessed him to do so. After a brief stay at Lahore, he reached Ajmer along with Sultan Shahāb-ud-Din Muhammad Ghori, and settled down there. In Ajmer, he attracted a substantial following, acquiring a great deal of respect amongst the residents of the city. Moinuddin Chishtī practiced the Sufi Sulh-e-Kul (peace to all) concept to promote understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims

Ahmed Ullah Maizbhandari

Ahmed Ullah Maizbhanderi was born on January 15, 1826, corresponding to Magh 1, 1233 of the Bengali calendar year. Sufi scholar Mohiuddin Ibn Arabi was said to have predicted the birth of Ahamed Ullah Maizbhanderi, 586 years earlier. The Maizbhandari Tariqa or Maizbhandari Sufi Order is a liberated Sufism order established in the Bangladesh in the 19th century by the Gausul Azam Hazrat Shah Sufi Syed Ahmadullah Maizbhandari (1826 AD − 1906 AD), 27th descendent of Muhammad. The Maizbhandari Tariqa or Maizbhandari Sufi Order is based on seven methods to follow which make a man in perfect one with moral control and self purification. They are divided into two parts like Destruction of human instincts (Fana-E Salasa) and Death of Aptitude (Mout-E Arba).

Rabi'a al-Adawiyya

Rabi'a al-Adawiyya ( died 801 ), was a flautist, mystic, and pilgrim who represents the distinctly countercultural elements of Sufism, especially with regards to the status and power of women. Prominent Sufi leader Hasan al-Basri is said to have castigated himself before her superior merits and sincere virtues.[165] Rabi'a was born either a slave or a servant of very poor origin, released by her master when he awoke one night to see the light of sanctity shining above her head.[166] Rabi'a al-Adawiyya is known for her teachings and emphasis on the centrality of the love of God to a holy life.[167] Running down the streets of Basra, Iraq, she proclaimed:

"O God! If I worship You for fear of Hell, burn me in Hell, and if I worship You in hope of Paradise, exclude me from Paradise. But if I worship You for Your Own sake, grudge me not Your everlasting Beauty."
— Rabi'a al-Adawiyya

She died in Jerusalem, and is thought to have been buried in the Chapel of the Ascension.

Mansur al-Hallaj

Mansur al-Hallaj (died 922 ) is renowned for his claim "Ana-l-Haqq" (I am The Truth). His refusal to recant this utterance, which was regarded as apostasy, led to a long trial. He was imprisoned for 11 years in a Baghdad prison, before being tortured and publicly dismembered on March 26, 922. He is still revered by Sufis for his willingness to embrace torture and death rather than recant. It is said that during his prayers, he would say "O Lord! You are the guide of those who are passing through the Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge my heresy".[168]

Sufi Orders

Main article: Tariqa
"Tariqat" in the Four Spiritual Stations: The Four Stations, sharia, tariqa, haqiqa. The fourth station, marifa, which is considered "unseen", is actually the center of the haqiqa region. It's the essence of all four stations.

The term Tariqa is used for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ḥaqīqah (ultimate truth). A tariqa has a murshid (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The members or followers of a tariqa are known as murīdīn (singular murīd), meaning "desirous", viz. "desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God".[169]

Bektashi

Main article: Bektashi

The Bektashi Order was founded in the 13th century by the Islamic saint Haji Bektash Veli, and greatly influenced during its fomulative period by the Hurufi Ali al-'Ala in the 15th century and reorganized by Balım Sultan in the 16th century.

Chishti

Main article: Chishti Order

The Chishti Order (Persian: چشتیہ‎‎) was founded by (Khawaja) Abu Ishaq Shami ("the Syrian"; died 941) who brought Sufism to the town of Chisht, some 95 miles east of Herat in present-day Afghanistan. Before returning to the Levant, Shami initiated, trained and deputized the son of the local Emir (Khwaja) Abu Ahmad Abdal (died 966). Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad's descendants, the Chishtiyya as they are also known, flourished as a regional mystical order.

Kubrawiya

Main article: Kubrawiya

The Kubrawiya order is a Sufi order ("tariqa") named after its 13th-century founder Najmuddin Kubra. The Kubrawiya Sufi order was founded in the 13th century by Najmuddin Kubra in Bukhara in modern Uzbekistan.[170] The Mongols had captured Bukhara in 1221, they committed genocide and killed nearly the whole population. Sheikh Nadjm ed-Din Kubra was among those killed by the Mongols.

Mawlawiyya

Main article: Mawlawiyyah

The Mevlevi Order is better known in the West as the "whirling dervishes".

Muridiyya

Main article: Muridiyya

Mouride is a large Islamic Sufi order most prominent in Senegal and The Gambia, with headquarters in the holy city of Touba, Senegal.[171]

Naqshbandi

Main article: Naqshbandi

The Naqshbandi order is one of the major Sufi orders of Islam. Formed in 1380, the order is considered by some to be a "sober" order known for its silent dhikr (remembrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders. The word "Naqshbandi" (نقشبندی) is Persian, taken from the name of the founder of the order, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari. Some have said that the translation means "related to the image-maker", some also consider it to mean "Pattern Maker" rather than "image maker", and interpret "Naqshbandi" to mean "Reformer of Patterns", and others consider it to mean "Way of the Chain" or "Silsilat al-dhahab".

As mentioned below, the conception of Naqshbandi may require more elaboration and clarity as the explanation to this effect creating ambiguity and complicity with in it. The meanings of "Naqshbandi" is to follow the pattern of head of the former. In other words, "Naqshbandi" may be taken as "followup or like a flow chart" of practices exercised by the head of this school of thought.

Khālidīyyā

Main article: Khālidīyyā

Khālidīyyā Sufi Order is a branch of the Naqshbandiyya Sufi Silsilat al-dhahab. It begins from the time of Khalid al-Baghdadi and continues until the time of Shaykh Ismail ash-Shirwani

Sülaymānīyyā

Main article: Sülaymānīyyā

Sülaymānī Ṭarīqah is an offshoot of Naqshbandi Islamic Ṭarīqah founded by Sülaymān Hilmi Silistrevī in Turkey.[172] It was estimated that there were more than two million followers in Turkey in the early 1990s.[173] They are the most active branch in the private Hāfīz education in Turkey

Haqqānīyyā

Haqqānīyyā Ṭarīqah is an offshoot of Naqshbandi Islamic Ṭarīqah founded by Shaykh Nazim al-Qubrusi in order to spread the Sufi teachings and the Unity of belief in God that is present in all religions and spiritual paths as announced by its official website.

Nimatullahi

Main article: Nimatullahi

The Ni'matullāhī order is the most widespread Sufi order of Persia today. It was founded by Shah Ni'matullah Wali (died 1367), established and transformed from his inheritance of the Ma'rufiyyah circle.[174] There are several suborders in existence today, the most known and influential in the West following the lineage of Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh who brought the order to the West following the 1979 Revolution in Iran.

Nurbakshi

Main article: Noorbakshia Islam

The "Noorbakshia"[175] (Arabic: ش‎) also called Nubakshia is an Islamic sect and the Sufi order[176][177] and way that claims to trace its direct spiritual lineage and chain (silsilah) to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, through Ali, by way of Imam Ali Al-Ridha. This order became famous as Nurbakshi after Shah Syed Muhammad Nurbakhsh Qahistani who was attached with Kubrawiya order Sufi order ("tariqa").

Owaisi (Uwaiysi)

Main article: Uwaisi

The Owaisi (Uwaiysi) order claim to be founded 1,400 years ago by Uwais al-Qarni from Yemen. Uways received the teachings of Islam inwardly through his heart and lived by the principles taught by him, although he had never physically met Muhammad. At times Muhammad would say of him, "I feel the breath of the Merciful, coming to me from Yemen." Shortly before Muhammad died, he directed Umar (second Caliph) and Ali (the first Imam of the Shia) to take his cloak to Uwais. "According to Ali Hujwiri, Farid ad-Din Attar of Nishapur and Sheikh Muhammad Ghader Bagheri, the first recipient of Muhammad's cloak was Uwais al-Qarni. The 'Original Cloak' as it is known is thought to have passed down the generations from the prophet Abraham to Muhammad, to Uwais al-Qarni, and so on."[178]

The Oveyssi order exists today in various forms and in different countries. According to Dr. Alan Godlas of the University of Georgia's Department of Religion, a Sufi Order or tariqa known as the Uwaysi is "very active", having been introduced in the West by the 20th century Sufi, Shah Maghsoud Angha. The Uwaysi Order is a Shi'i branch of the Kubrawiya.

In Pakistan several branches of owaisi silsila exist, notably the Silsila of Shams Ali Qalandar owaisi, qadri, noshahi with followers present all over the world, articles on tasawuf are given on order's official site.[179]

Godlas writes that there are two recent and distinct contemporary branches of the Uwaysi Order in the West:

Uwaiysi Tarighat, led by Shah Maghsoud Sadegh Angha's daughter, Seyyedeh Dr. Nahid Angha, and her husband Shah Nazar Seyed Ali Kianfar. Dr. Angha and Dr. Kianfar went on to found another the International Association of Sufism (IAS) which operates in California and organizes international Sufi symposia.

There is also an international non-profit organization, the MTO Shahmaghsoudi led by Hazrat Salaheddin Ali Nader Angha has over five-hundred thousand students with centers spanning five continents. With the use of modern technology and reach of the internet, weekly webcasts of the order's lecture and zekr sessions are broadcast live through the order's official website.[180]

Qadiri

Main article: Qadiriyyah

The Qadiri Order is one of the oldest Sufi Orders. It derives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani (1077–1166), a native of the Iranian province of Gīlān. The order is one of the most widespread of the Sufi orders in the Islamic world, and can be found in Central Asia, Turkey, Balkans and much of East and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings outside of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical experience.

Sarwari Qadri

The Sarwari Qadri order[181] was founded by Sultan Bahu[182] which branched out of the Qadiriyyah order. Hence, it follows the same approach of the order but unlike most Sufi orders, it does not follow a specific dress code, seclusion, or other lengthy exercises. Its mainstream philosophy is related directly to the heart and contemplating on the name of Allah i.e. the word الله (Allah, God) as written on own heart.[183]

Maizbhandari

Main article: Tarika-e-Maizbhandari

The Maizbhandari Tariqa or Maizbhandari Sufi Order is a liberated Sufism order established in the Bangladesh in the 19th century by the Gausul Azam Hazrat Shah Sufi Syed Ahmadullah Maizbhandari (1826 AD − 1906 AD), 27th descendent of Hazrat Ahmad Mustaba Muhammad Mustafa.

Senussi

Main article: Senussi

Senussi is a religious-political Sufi order established by Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi. Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi founded this movement due to his criticism of the Egyptian ulema. Originally from Mecca, as-Senussi left due to pressure from Wahhabis to leave and settled in Cyrenaica where he was well received.[184] Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi was later recognized as Emir of Cyrenaica[185] and eventually became King of Libya. The monarchy was abolished by Muammar Gaddafi but, a third of Libyan still claim to be Senussi.

Shadiliyya

Main article: Shadhili

The Shadhili is a Sufi order founded by Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili. Followers (murids Arabic: seekers) of the Shadhiliyya are often known as Shadhilis.[186][187]

Suhrawardiyya

Main article: Suhrawardiyya

The Suhrawardiyya order (Arabic: سهروردية‎) is a Sufi order founded by Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi (1097–1168). The order was formalized by his nephew, Shahab al-Din Abu Hafs Umar Suhrawardi.

Tijaniyya

Main article: Tijaniyyah

The Tijaniyyah order attach a large importance to culture and education, and emphasize the individual adhesion of the disciple (murīd). [187]

Symbols associated with the Sufi Orders

Reception

Critique of Sufism's anti-materialistic aspects

Certain aspects of Sufi philosophy are controversial and often debated, chief among them is the anti-materialistic strain within its ethos. Gamal Marzouq, Professor of Islamic Philosophy in Ain-Shams University, in his paper titled "The effect of Christianity on the first emergence of Islamic Sufism", has highlighted the monastic and anti-materialist trends within Sufism, calling attention to their "abandoning materialism and living only for praying, something similar to monasticism".[188]

Conversely, the Quran calls out monasticism as a human invention not prescribed by God in the verse 57:27: "monasticism, which they innovated; We did not prescribe it for them...". Furthermore, there is much emphasis on physical laws of the universe within the Quran, urging believers to study and understand the "signs" of God in the physical world (e.g. verse 2:164), which precludes the possibility of avoiding or shunning the material world. Ibrahim B. Syed has called attention to the fact that the only definition of the word alim in the Quran, a word commonly understood to mean "religious leader" today, is actually referring to scientists, indicating the high importance afforded by the Quran to the material world and the act of engaging with it, so as to understand God's universe.[189] There are also the active aspects of the Quran's teachings which urge believers to seek to improve the human condition and work to establish the laws of God within human society (verse 22:41), a mission that does not fit well with the hermetic and monastic tendencies within Sufism.

Perception outside Islam

A choreographed Sufi performance on Friday in Sudan.

Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western world, and especially its Orientalist scholars.[190] Figures like Rumi have become well known in the United States, where Sufism is perceived as a peaceful and apolitical form of Islam.[190]

The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works towards the integration of Europe and Muslims, sees Sufism as particularly suited for interreligious dialogue and intercultural harmonisation in democratic and pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol of tolerance and humanism—nondogmatic, flexible and non-violent.[191] According to Philip Jenkins, a Professor at Baylor University, "the Sufis are much more than tactical allies for the West: they are, potentially, the greatest hope for pluralism and democracy within Muslim nations." Likewise, several governments and organisations have advocated the promotion of Sufism as a means of combating intolerant and violent strains of Islam.[192] For example, the Chinese and Russian[193] governments openly favor Sufism as the best means of protecting against Islamist subversion. The British government, especially following the 7 July 2005 London bombings, has favoured Sufi groups in its battle against Muslim extremist currents. The influential RAND Corporation, an American think-tank, issued a major report titled "Building Moderate Muslim Networks," which urged the US government to form links with and bolster[194] Muslim groups that opposed Islamist extremism. The report stressed the Sufi role as moderate traditionalists open to change, and thus as allies against violence.[195][196] News organisations such as the BBC, Economist and Boston Globe have also seen Sufism as a means to deal with violent Muslim extremists.[197]

Influence on Judaism

Both Judaism and Islam are monotheistic. However, there is evidence that Sufism did influence the development of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. A great influence was exercised by Sufism upon the ethical writings of Jews in the Middle Ages. In the first writing of this kind, we see "Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ al-Ḳulub", Duties of the Heart, of Bahya ibn Paquda. This book was translated by Judah ibn Tibbon into Hebrew under the title "Ḥōḇōṯ Ha-lleḇāḇōṯ".[198]

The precepts prescribed by the Torah number 613 only; those dictated by the intellect are innumerable.

This was precisely the argument used by the Sufis against their adversaries, the Ulamas. The arrangement of the book seems to have been inspired by Sufism. Its ten sections correspond to the ten stages through which the Sufi had to pass in order to attain that true and passionate love of God which is the aim and goal of all ethical self-discipline. A considerable amount of Sufi ideas entered the Jewish mainstream through Bahya ibn Paquda's work, which remains one of the most popular ethical treatises in Judaism.

It is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sufis Al-Kusajri and Al-Harawi there are sections which treat of the same subjects as those treated in the "Ḥovot ha-Lebabot" and which bear the same titles: e.g., "Bab al-Tawakkul"; "Bab al-Taubah"; "Bab al-Muḥasabah"; "Bab al-Tawaḍu'"; "Bab al-Zuhd". In the ninth gate, Baḥya directly quotes sayings of the Sufis, whom he calls Perushim. However, the author of the Ḥōḇōṯ Ha-lleḇāḇōṯ did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism of the Sufis, although he showed a marked predilection for their ethical principles.

The Jewish writer Abraham bar Ḥiyya teaches the asceticism of the Sufis. His distinction with regard to the observance of Jewish law by various classes of men is essentially a Sufic theory. According to it there are four principal degrees of human perfection or sanctity; namely:

1. of "Shari'ah", i.e., of strict obedience to all ritual laws of Islam, such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, almsgiving, ablution, etc., which is the lowest degree of worship, and is attainable by all
2. of Ṭariqah, which is accessible only to a higher class of men who, while strictly adhering to the outward or ceremonial injunctions of religion, rise to an inward perception of mental power and virtue necessary for the nearer approach to the Divinity
3. of "Ḥaḳikah", the degree attained by those who, through continuous contemplation and inward devotion, have risen to the true perception of the nature of the visible and invisible; who, in fact, have recognized the Godhead, and through this knowledge have succeeded in establishing an ecstatic relation to it; and
4. of the "Ma'arifah", in which state man communicates directly with the Deity.

Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, the son of the Jewish philosopher Maimonides, believed that Sufi practices and doctrines continue the tradition of the Biblical prophets. See Sefer Hammaspiq, "Happerishuth", Chapter 11 ("Ha-mmaʿaḇāq") s.v. hithbonen efo be-masoreth mufla'a zo, citing the Talmudic explanation of Jeremiah 13:27 in Chagigah 5b; in Rabbi Yaakov Wincelberg's translation, "The Way of Serving God" (Feldheim), p. 429 and above, p. 427. Also see ibid., Chapter 10 ("Iqquḇim"), s.v. wa-halo yoḏeʾaʿ atta; in "The Way of Serving God", p. 371. There are other such references in Rabbi Abraham's writings, as well. He introduced into the Jewish prayer such practices as reciting God's names (dhikr).

Abraham Maimuni's principal work is originally composed in Judeo-Arabic and entitled "כתאב כפאיה אלעאבדין" Kitāb Kifāyah al-'Ābidīn ("A Comprehensive Guide for the Servants of God"). From the extant surviving portion it is conjectured that Maimuni's treatise was three times as long as his father's Guide for the Perplexed. In the book, Maimuni evidences a great appreciation for, and affinity to, Sufism. Followers of his path continued to foster a Jewish-Sufi form of pietism for at least a century, and he is rightly considered the founder of this pietistic school, which was centered in Egypt.

The followers of this path, which they called, interchangeably, Hasidism (not to be confused with the [later] Jewish Hasidic movement) or Sufism (Tasawwuf), practiced spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting and sleep deprivation. The Jewish Sufis maintained their own brotherhood, guided by a religious leader—like a Sufi sheikh.[199]

Abraham Maimuni's two sons, Obadyah and David, continued to lead this Jewish-Sufi brotherhood. Obadyah Maimonides wrote Al-Mawala Al Hawdiyya ("The Treatise of the Pool")—an ethico-mystical manual based on the typically Sufi comparison of the heart to a pool that must be cleansed before it can experience the Divine.

The Maimonidean legacy extended right through to the 15th century with the 5th generation of Maimonidean Sufis, David ben Joshua Maimonides, who wrote Al-Murshid ila al-Tafarrud (The Guide to Detachment), which includes numerous extracts of Suhrawardi's Kalimat at-Tasawwuf.

In popular culture

Films

Music

Friday evening ceremony at Dargah Salim Chisti, India.

Abida Parveen, a Pakistani Sufi singer is one of the foremost exponents of Sufi music, together with Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are considered the finest Sufi vocalists of the modern era. Sanam Marvi another Pakistani singer has recently gained recognition for her Sufi vocal performances.

A. R. Rahman, the Oscar-winning Indian musician, has several compositions which draw inspiration from the Sufi genre; examples are the filmi qawwalis Khwaja Mere Khwaja in the film Jodhaa Akbar, Arziyan in the film Delhi 6 and Kun Faya Kun in the film Rockstar.

Bengali singer Lalan Fakir and Bangladesh's national poet Kazi Nazrul Islam scored several Sufi songs.

Junoon, a band from Pakistan, created the genre of Sufi rock by combining elements of modern hard rock and traditional folk music with Sufi poetry.

In 2005, Rabbi Shergill released a Sufi rock song called "Bulla Ki Jaana", which became a chart-topper in India and Pakistan.[200][201]

Madonna, on her 1994 record Bedtime Stories, sings a song called "Bedtime Story" that discusses achieving a high unconsciousness level. The video for the song shows an ecstatic Sufi ritual with many dervishes dancing, Arabic calligraphy and some other Sufi elements. In her 1998 song "Bittersweet", she recites Rumi's poem by the same name. In her 2001 Drowned World Tour, Madonna sang the song "Secret" showing rituals from many religions, including a Sufi dance.

American rock band mewithoutYou draw heavily on all of the Abrahamic religions in their music, with a heavy focus on Sufism. Their 2009 album It's All Crazy! It's All False! It's All a Dream! It's Alright is based on the teaching of Sufi mystic Bawa Muhaiyaddeen.

Singer/songwriter Loreena McKennitt's record The Mask and Mirror (1994) has a song called "The Mystic's Dream" that is influenced by Sufi music and poetry.

Tori Amos makes a reference to Sufis in her song "Cruel".

Mercan Dede is a Turkish composer who incorporates Sufism into his music and performances.

British folk singer Richard Thompson is a long-time Sufi.

Literature

A 17th century miniature of Nasreddin was a Seljuq satirical Sufi, currently in the Topkapi Palace Museum Library.

The Persian poet Rumi has become one of the most widely read poets in the United States, thanks largely to the interpretative translations published by Coleman Barks.[202] Elif Safak's novel The Forty Rules of Love tells the story of Rumi becoming a disciple of the Persian Sufi dervish Shams Tabrizi. Furthermore, between 1910 and 1911 one of the first sufistic journals, called Hikmet, was published in Istanbul by the Turkish Sufi Şehbenderzade Filibeli Ahmed Hilmi. Another sufistic oriented journal was published in Egypt between 1931 and 1934. Al-Maʿrifa informed among others about sufistic moral and wisdom.

Modern and contemporary Sufi scholars

Further information: List of modern Sufi scholars

Gallery

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Qamar-ul Huda (2003), Striving for Divine Union: Spiritual Exercises for Suhraward Sufis, RoutledgeCurzon, pp. 1–4
  2. ↑ Editors, The (2014-02-04). "tariqa | Islam". Britannica.com. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
  3. ↑ The New Encyclopedia Of Islam By Cyril Glassé, p.499
  4. ↑ Shaikh Muhmmad bin Jamil Zeno (1996), The Pillars of Islam & Iman, DARUSSALAM, ISBN 9789960897127
  5. ↑ Quoted in Ibrahim Gamard, Rumi and Islam: Selections from His Stories, Poems, and Discourses — Annotated and Explained, p. 171.
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  9. ↑ Daftary |Farhad |2013 |A History of Shi'i Islam |New York NY |I.B. Tauris and Co ltd. |page 28 |ISBN 9780300035315 |4/8/2015
  10. 1 2 The Jamaat Tableegh and the Deobandis by Sajid Abdul Kayum, Chapter 1: Overview and Background.
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  13. ↑ Corrections of Popular Versions of Poems From Rumi's Divan
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  49. ↑ For the pre-modern era, see Vincent J. Cornell, Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism, ISBN 978-0-292-71209-6; and for the colonial era, Knut Vikyr, Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad B. Oali Al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood, ISBN 978-0-8101-1226-1.
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  51. ↑ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization, HarperSanFrancisco, 2003. (Ch. 1)
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  53. ↑ Arthur F. Buehler, Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh, ISBN 978-1-57003-783-2.
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  61. ↑ Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons, ISBN 977-00-1830-9
  62. ↑ Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6
  63. ↑ Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons; see also Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition, ISBN 978-1-930409-23-1, which reproduces the spiritual lineage (silsila) of a living Sufi master.
  64. 1 2 An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam: The History and Doctrines of Shi'i Page 209
  65. ↑ Hazrat Sakhi Sult̤ān Mohammad Najib-ur-Rehman. Insan e Kamil (The Universal Man). Sultan-ul-Faqr Publications. ISBN 978-9-699-79518-3.
  66. ↑ See Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6, for a detailed description of the practices and preconditions of this sort of spiritual retreat.
  67. ↑ See examples provided by Muzaffar Ozak in Irshad: Wisdom of a Sufi Master, addressed to a general audience rather than specifically to his own students.
  68. ↑ Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, Classical Islam and the Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition, ISBN 978-1-930409-23-1
  69. ↑ Carl W. Ernst (2010), p. 125
  70. 1 2 Carl W. Ernst, The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad, Muḥammad as the Pole of Existence, Cambridge University Press, p. 130
  71. ↑ Gholamreza Aavani, Glorification of the Prophet Muhammad in the Poems of Sa'adi, p. 4
  72. ↑ Jalaluddin Rumi, Ibrahim Gamard (translator), Rumi and Islam, p. 169
  73. ↑ Ibn Arabi, The Seals of Wisdom (Fusus al-Hikam), Aisha Bewley
  74. ↑ Fariduddin Attar, Ilahi-nama – The Book of God, John Andrew Boyle (translator), Thou knowest that none of the poets have sung such praise save only I.
  75. ↑ Fariduddin Attar, Ilahi-nama – The Book of God, John Andrew Boyle (translator)
  76. ↑ The Signs of a Sincere Lover (PDF), p. 91
  77. 1 2 Suzanne Pinckney Stetkevych, The Mantle Odes: Arabic Praise Poems to the Prophet Muhammad, Indiana University Press
  78. ↑ Muhammad Emin Er, The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-0-9.
  79. ↑ Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (1975) pg. 99
  80. ↑ (source: [pp. 778–795 of The Reliance of the Traveller, by Shaykh Nuh Ha Meem Keller])
  81. ↑ The Amman Message Summary. Retrieved on Feb 2, 2010.
  82. ↑ "The Gurdjieff Journal—Fourth Way Perspectives—Neo-Sufism: The Case of Idries Shah by James Moore". gurdjieff-legacy.org. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  83. 1 2 Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Order, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6
  84. ↑ For a systematic description of the diseases of the heart that are to be overcome in order for this perspective to take root, see Hamza Yusuf, Purification of the Heart: Signs, Symptoms and Cures of the Spiritual Diseases of the Heart, ISBN 978-1-929694-15-0.
  85. ↑ Concerning this, and for an excellent discussion of the concept of attraction (jadhba), see especially the Introduction to Abdullah Nur ad-Din Durkee, The School of the Shadhdhuliyyah, Volume One: Orisons, ISBN 977-00-1830-9.
  86. ↑ Muhammad Emin Er, al-Wasilat al-Fasila, unpublished MS.
  87. ↑ Realities of The Heart Lataif
  88. ↑ Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, ISBN 978-0-8078-1271-6.
  89. ↑ See especially Robert Frager, Heart, Self & Soul: The Sufi Psychology of Growth, Balance, and Harmony, ISBN 978-0-8356-0778-0.
  90. ↑ Hakim Moinuddin Chisti, The Book of Sufi Healing, ISBN 978-0-89281-043-7
  91. ↑ For an introduction to the normative creed of Islam as espoused by the consensus of scholars, see Hamza Yusuf, The Creed of Imam al-Tahawi, ISBN 978-0-9702843-9-6, and Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Maghnisawi, Imam Abu Hanifa's Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained, ISBN 978-1-933764-03-0.
  92. ↑ The meaning of certainty in this context is emphasized in Muhammad Emin Er, The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and Beliefs, Shifâ Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9815196-0-9.
  93. ↑ See in particular the introduction by T. J. Winter to Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali, Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul and on Breaking the Two Desires: Books XXII and XXIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences, ISBN 978-0-946621-43-9.
  94. ↑ Akbar Ahmed, Diiscovering Islam, Making sense of Muslim History and Society, ISBN 0-415-28525-9(Pbk)
  95. ↑ Abdullah Jawadi Amuli, "Dhikr and the Wisdom Behind It"
  96. ↑ Hakim Moinuddin Chisti The Book of Sufi Healing, ISBN 978-0-89281-043-7
  97. ↑ "The Naqshbandi Way of Dhikr". web.archive.org. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  98. ↑ Touma 1996, p.162
  99. ↑ What is Remembrance and what is Contemplation?
  100. ↑ "Muraqaba".
  101. ↑ Muhammad Emin Er, Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Path, ISBN 978-0-9815196-1-6, p. 77.
  102. ↑ "The Sema of the Mevlevi". Mevlevi Order of America. Retrieved 2009-03-26.
  103. ↑ The Whirling Dervishes of Rumi
  104. 1 2 3 Salafi intolerance threatens Sufis |Baher Ibrahim |guardian.co.uk |10 May 2010
  105. ↑ Mir, Tariq. "Kashmir: From Sufi to Salafi". November 5, 2012. Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
  106. 1 2 "Salafi Violence against Sufis". Islamopedia Online. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
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  108. ↑ Yadav, Rama Sankar (2007). Global Encyclopaedia of Education (4 Vols. Set). Global Vision Publishing House. p. 406. ISBN 9788182202276.
  109. ↑ Dalrymple, William (5 November 2005). "What goes round...". The Guardian (London).
  110. ↑ Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Momen, Moojan, Yale University Press, 1985 p.14-16
  111. 1 2 "Salafi destruction of shrines and public property unacceptable". Ikhwanweb. 3 April 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
  112. ↑ a think-tank based in Rawalpindi
  113. 1 2 Sunni Ittehad Council: Sunni Barelvi activism against Deobandi-Wahhabi terrorism in Pakistan – by Aarish U. Khan |criticalppp.com |Let Us Build Pakistan
  114. ↑ John R. Schmidt states, "although most Deobandis are no more prone to violence than their Christian fundamentalist counterparts in the West, every jihadist group based in Pakistan save one is Deobandi, as are the Afghan Taliban". The Unraveling: Pakistan in the Age of Jihad |John R. Schmidt |2011
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  117. ↑ Researcher Amir Rana (a researcher and editor quarterly research journal Conflict and Peace Studies. What is young Pakistan thinking?) claims than Deobandi themselves are often Sufi, as "Naqshbandi, the major Sufi cult in Pakistan, is mainly comprised of the Deobandis" (source: Rana, Amir. "Where sufism stands". 1 August 2010. Express Tribune Blogs. Retrieved 4 March 2013.). Maulana Qasim Nomani, the Rector of Deobandi seminary Darul Uloom Deoband has denied either that his school is anti-sufi or promotes militancy, stating Deoband scholars like Ashraf Ali Thanwi, and others were Sufi saints as well and they had their Khanqahs (Sufi hospice).
    Who said we are against Sufism? We very much follow the Sufi traditions and all of our elders were Sufi practitioners of Sufi tradition (source: Ali, Md. "Deoband hits back, rejects "baseless" charge of radicalizing Muslim youth". 19 October 2011. TwoCircles.net. Retrieved 4 March 2013.)
    According to the Jamestown Foundation, Deobandi have also been victims of sectarian strife.
    Scores of Deobandi leaders and members of Ahle Sunnat wal Jamat (ASWJ, formerly the banned Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan) have been assassinated in Karachi in recent years. Police sources say that the Sunni Tehrik, a Barelvi organization, is behind most of these assassinations. (source: Jamal, Arif. [http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=39288 "Karachi's Deadly Political and Sectarian Warfare Threatens the Stability of Pakistan's Commercial Capital"]. Terrorism Monitor April 20, 2012. Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 4 March 2013.)
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  121. ↑ Raja, Mudassir (31 July 2011). "Bari Imam Shrine attack 2005: Police await suspects on judicial remand in another case". Express Tribune. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
  122. ↑ Bari Imam blast: Masterminds belong to LJ linked group By Shahzad Malik |14 June 2005
  123. ↑ Three LJ activists indicted in Nishtar Park blast case, Dawn (newspaper), 2 September 2009
  124. ↑ Tanoli, Ishaq (5 February 2012). "Six years on, Nishtar Park carnage trial remains inconclusive". Dawn. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
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  127. ↑ "In Pakistan, faith healers have no shortage of believers", Alex Rodriguez, Los Angeles Times, March 29, 2012
  128. ↑ Faith Healing and Skepticism in Pakistan: Challenges and Instability |Ryan Shaffer |csicop.org |Volume 36.6, November/December 2012
  129. ↑ Terrorism Monitor Brief, March 19, 2009
  130. ↑ And now Sunni vs Sunni Riaz ul Hassan |circa July 2010
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  132. ↑ "LUBP | Sarfraz Naeemi". Criticalppp.com. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
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  135. ↑ "Blast at Baba Farid's shrine kills six". Express Tribune. October 26, 2010. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
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  145. ↑ Timbuktu's Destruction: Why Islamists Are Wrecking Mali's Cultural Heritage |By Ishaan Tharoor|time.com |July 02, 2012
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  147. ↑ "Destroying the Shrines of Timbuktu: Some Arab Responses". Islamopedia Online. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
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