Tamil script

Tamil
தமிழ்
Type
Languages Tamil
Kanikkaran
Badaga[1]
Irula
Paniya
Sanskrit
Saurashtra
Time period
c. 700–present
Parent systems
Sister systems
Malayalam
Sinhala
Tigalari
Grantha
Vatteluttu
Pallava
Kolezhuthu
Kannada
Telugu
Direction Left-to-right
ISO 15924 Taml, 346
Unicode alias
Tamil
U+0B80–U+0BFF

The Tamil script (தமிழ் அரிச்சுவடி tamiḻ ariccuvaṭi) is an abugida script that is used by Tamils and Tamil speakers in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and elsewhere to write the Tamil language, as well as to write the liturgical language Sanskrit, using consonants and diacritics not represented in the Tamil alphabet.[2] Certain minority languages such as Saurashtra, Badaga, Irula, and Paniya language are also written in the Tamil script.[3]

Overview

Characteristics

The Tamil script has 12 vowels (உயிரெழுத்து uyireḻuttu "soul-letters"), 18 consonants (மெய்யெழுத்து meyyeḻuttu "body-letters") and one special character, the (ஆயுத எழுத்து). is pronounced as "akku" or "அக்கு" and is classified in Tamil grammar as being neither a consonant nor a vowel. However, it is listed at the end of the vowel set. The script is syllabic, not alphabetic.[4] The complete script, therefore, consists of the thirty-one letters in their independent form, and an additional 216 combinant letters representing a total 247 combinations (உயிர்மெய்யெழுத்து uyirmeyyeḻuttu) of a consonant and a vowel, a mute consonant, or a vowel alone. These combinant letters are formed by adding a vowel marker to the consonant. Some vowels require the basic shape of the consonant to be altered in a way that is specific to that vowel. Others are written by adding a vowel-specific suffix to the consonant, yet others a prefix, and finally some vowels require adding both a prefix and a suffix to the consonant. In every case the vowel marker is different from the standalone character for the vowel.

The Tamil script is written from left to right.

History

Diverging evolution of Tamil Brahmi script (center column) into the Vatteluttu alphabet (leftmost column) and the Tamil script (rightmost column)
History of Tamil script
A page from a Tamil palm-leaf manuscript.

The Tamil script, like the other Brahmic scripts, is thought to have evolved from the original Brahmi script.[5] The earliest inscriptions which are accepted examples of Tamil writing date to a time just after the Ashokan period. The script used by these inscriptions is commonly known as the Tamil-Brahmi or "Tamili script", and differs in many ways from standard Ashokan Brahmi. For example, early Tamil-Brahmi, unlike Ashokan Brahmi, had a system to distinguish between pure consonants (m in this example) and consonants with an inherent vowel (ma in this example). In addition, according to Iravatham Mahadevan, early Tamil Brahmi used slightly different vowel markers, had extra characters to represent letters not found in Sanskrit, and omitted letters for sounds not present in Tamil, such as voiced consonants and aspirates.[5] Inscriptions from the second century use a later form of Tamil-Brahmi, which is substantially similar to the writing system described in the Tolkāppiyam, an ancient Tamil grammar. Most notably, they use the puḷḷi to suppress the inherent vowel.[6] The Tamil letters thereafter evolved towards a more rounded form, and by the fifth or sixth century had reached a form called the early vaṭṭeḻuttu.[7]

Tampiran Vanakkam (Doctrina Christum) was the first book in Tamil, printed on 20 October 1578

The modern Tamil script does not, however, descend from this script.[8] In the seventh century, the Pallava dynasty created a new script for Tamil, which was formed by simplifying the Grantha alphabet (which in turn derived from Southern Brahmi), and adding to it the Vaṭṭeḻuttu alphabet for sounds not found in Sanskrit.[9] By the 8th century, this new script supplanted Vaṭṭeḻuttu in the Chola and Pallava kingdoms which lay in the north portion of the Tamil-speaking region. Vaṭṭeḻuttu continued to be used in the southern portion of the Tamil-speaking region, in the Chera and Pandyan kingdoms until the 11th century, when the Pandyan kingdom was conquered by the Cholas.[10]

A Tamil book printed in 1781

Over the next few centuries, the Chola-Pallava script evolved into the modern Tamil script. The use of palm leaves as the primary medium for writing led to changes in the script. The scribe had to be careful not to pierce the leaves with the stylus while writing, because a leaf with a hole was more likely to tear and decay faster. As a result, the use of the puḷḷi to distinguish pure consonants became rare, with pure consonants usually being written as if the inherent vowel were present. Similarly, the vowel marker for the kuṟṟiyal ukaram, a half-rounded u which occurs at the end of some words and in the medial position in certain compound words, also fell out of use and was replaced by the marker for the simple u. The puḷḷi did not fully reappear until the introduction of printing, but the marker kuṟṟiyal ukaram never came back into use, although the sound itself still exists and plays an important role in Tamil prosody.

The forms of some of the letters were simplified in the nineteenth century to make the script easier to typeset. In the twentieth century, the script was simplified even further in a series of reforms, which regularised the vowel markers used with consonants by eliminating special markers and most irregular forms.

Relationship with other Indic scripts

The Tamil script differs from other Brahmi-derived scripts in a number of ways. Unlike every other Bramic script, it does not regularly represent voiced or aspirated stop consonants as these are not phonemes of the Tamil language even though voiced and fricative allophones of stops do appear in spoken Tamil. Thus the character க் k, for example, represents both /k/ but can also be pronounced /ɡ/ or /x/ based on the rules of Tamil grammar.

A separate set of characters appears for these sounds when the Tamil scripts is used to write Sanskrit or other languages.

Also unlike other Brahmi scripts, the Tamil script rarely uses typographic ligatures to represent conjunct consonants, which are far less frequent in Tamil than in other Indian languages. Where they occur, conjunct consonants are written by writing the character for the first consonant, adding the puḷḷi to suppress its inherent vowel, and then writing the character for the second consonant. There are a few exceptions, namely க்ஷ kṣa and ஸ்ரீ śrī.

Letters

Basic consonants

Consonants are called the "body" (mei) letters. The consonants are classified into three categories: vallinam (hard consonants), mellinam (soft consonants, including all nasals), and itayinam (medium consonants).

There are some lexical rules for formation of words. The Tolkāppiyam describes such rules. Some examples: a word cannot end in certain consonants, and cannot begin with some consonants including r-, l- and ḻ-; there are two consonants for the dental n - which one should be used depends on whether the n occurs at the start of the word and on the letters around it. (Historically, one n was pronounced as an alveolar consonant, as is still true in Malayalam.)

The order of the alphabet (strictly abugida) in Tamil closely matches that of the nearby languages both in location and linguistics, reflecting the common origin of their scripts from Brahmi.

Consonant ISO 15919 Category IPA
க் k vallinam [k], [ɡ], [x], [ɣ], [h]
ங் mellinam [ŋ]
ச் c vallinam [t͡ʃ], [d͡ʒ], [ʃ], [s], [ʒ]
ஞ் ñ mellinam [ɲ]
ட் vallinam [ʈ], [ɖ], [ɽ]
ண் mellinam [s]
த் t vallinam [], [], [ð]
ந் n mellinam [n̪]
ப் p vallinam [p], [b], [β]
ம் mellinam [m]
ய் y idaiyinam [j]
ர் r idaiyinam [ɾ]
ல் l idaiyinam [l]
வ் v idaiyinam [ʋ]
ழ் idaiyinam [ɻ]
ள் idaiyinam [ɭ]
ற் vallinam [ɲ], [t], [d]
ன் mellinam [n]

Consonants of modern Tamil

The Tamil speech has incorporated many phonemes which were not part of Tholkappiyan classification. The letters used to write these sounds, known as "grantha", are part of modern Tamil. They are taught from elementary school and incorporated in the Tamil Nadu Government encoding called Tamil All Character Encoding (TACE16).

Consonant ISO 15919 IPA
ஶ் ś [ɕ], [ʃ]
ஜ் j [d͡ʒ]
ஷ் c [ʂ]
ஸ் s [s]
ஹ் h [h]
க்ஷ் kṣ [kʂ]

In recent times, three combinations of Tamil basic letters are generally used to depict sounds of English letters 'f', 'z', and 'x'. This is for writing English and Arabic names and words in Tamil. The combinations are ஃப for f, ஃஜ for z and ஃஸ் for x. For example: asif = அசிஃப், aZaarudheen = அஃஜாருதீன், rex = ரெஃஸ்

There has also been effort to differentiate voice and unvoiced consonants through superscripted and subscripted integers - one, two, three and four standing for the unvoiced, unvoiced aspirated, voiced, voiced aspirated, respectively - this was used to transcribe Sanskrit words in Tamil, in Sanskrit-Tamil books.[11][12] For example: க₁ - Ka க₂ - Kha க₃ - Ga க₄ - Gha This extension of Tamil script is not yet recognized by Unicode - there is no Grantha subscript in Unicode and the place where the numbers should be placed is immediately neighbouring the root consonant character; Unicode currently renders those as கௌ₂ or க₂ௌ on possible permutations.

Vowels

Vowels are also called the 'life' (uyir) or 'soul' letters. Together with the consonants (which are called 'body' letters), they form compound, syllabic (abugida) letters that are called 'living' letters (uyirmei, i.e. letters that have both 'body' and 'soul').

Tamil vowels are divided into short and long (five of each type) and two diphthongs.

Isolated form

Vowel ISO 15919 IPA
a [ʌ]
ā [ɑː]
i [i]
ī [iː]
u [u], [ɯ]
k [uː]
e [e]
ē [eː]
ai [ʌj]
o [ɯ]
ō [oː]
au [ʌʋ]

Compound form

Using the consonant 'k' as an example:

Formation Compound form ISO 15919 IPA
க் + அ ka [kʌ]
க் + ஆ கா [kɑː]
க் + இ கி ki [ki]
க் + ஈ கீ [kiː]
க் + உ கு ku [ku], [kɯ]
க் + ஊ கூ [kuː]
க் + எ கெ ke [ke]
க் + ஏ கே [keː]
க் + ஐ கை kai [kʌj]
க் + ஒ கொ ko [kɯ]
க் + ஓ கோ [koː]
க் + ஔ கௌ kau [kʌʋ]

The special letter (called akh) is the visarga. It traditionally served a purely grammatical function, but in modern times it has come to be used as a diacritic to represent foreign sounds. For example, ஃப is used for the English sound f, not found in Tamil.

The long (nedil) vowels are about twice as long as the short (kuRil) vowels. The diphthongs are usually pronounced about one and a half times as long as the short vowels, though some grammatical texts place them with the long (nedil) vowels.

As can be seen in the compound form, the vowel sign can be added to the right, left or both sides of the consonants. It can also form a ligature. These rules are evolving and older use has more ligatures than modern use. What you actually see on this page depends on your font selection; for example, Code2000 will show more ligatures than Latha.

There are proponents of script reform who want to eliminate all ligatures and let all vowel signs appear on the right side.

Unicode encodes the character in logical order (always the consonant first), whereas legacy 8-bit encodings (such as TSCII) prefer the written order. This makes it necessary to reorder when converting from one encoding to another; it is not sufficient simply to map one set of codepoints to the other.

Compound table of Tamil letters

The following table lists vowel (uyir or life) letters across the top and consonant (mei or body) letters along the side, the combination of which gives all Tamil compound (uyirmei) letters.

Vowels

Tholkapyam consonants

a ā i ī u ū e ē ai o ō au
க் k கா கி கீ கு கூ கெ கே கை கொ கோ கௌ
ங் ஙா ஙி ஙீ ஙு ஙூ ஙெ ஙே ஙை ஙொ ஙோ ஙௌ
ச் c சா சி சீ சு சூ செ சே சை சொ சோ சௌ
ஞ் ñ ஞா ஞி ஞீ ஞு ஞூ ஞெ ஞே ஞை ஞொ ஞோ ஞௌ
ட் டா டி டீ டு டூ டெ டே டை டொ டோ டௌ
ண் ணா ணி ணீ ணு ணூ ணெ ணே ணை ணொ ணோ ணௌ
த் t தா தி தீ து தூ தெ தே தை தொ தோ தௌ
ந் n நா நி நீ நு நூ நெ நே நை நொ நோ நௌ
ப் p பா பி பீ பு பூ பெ பே பை பொ போ பௌ
ம் m மா மி மீ மு மூ மெ மே மை மொ மோ மௌ
ய் y யா யி யீ யு யூ யெ யே யை யொ யோ யௌ
ர் r ரா ரி ரீ ரு ரூ ரெ ரே ரை ரொ ரோ ரௌ
ல் l லா லி லீ லு லூ லெ லே லை லொ லோ லௌ
வ் v வா வி வீ வு வூ வெ வே வை வொ வோ வௌ
ழ் ழா ழி ழீ ழு ழூ ழெ ழே ழை ழொ ழோ ழௌ
ள் ளா ளி ளீ ளு ளூ ளெ ளே ளை ளொ ளோ ளௌ
ற் றா றி றீ று றூ றெ றே றை றொ றோ றௌ
ன் னா னி னீ னு னூ னெ னே னை னொ னோ னௌ
Grantha compound table
Vowels

Grantha consonants

a ā i ī u ū e ē ai o ō au
ஶ் ś ஶா ஶி ஶீ ஶு ஶூ ஶெ ஶே ஶை ஶொ ஶோ ஶௌ
ஜ் j ஜா ஜி ஜீ ஜு ஜூ ஜெ ஜே ஜை ஜொ ஜோ ஜௌ
ஷ் ஷா ஷி ஷீ ஷு ஷூ ஷெ ஷே ஷை ஷொ ஷோ ஷௌ
ஸ் s ஸா ஸி ஸீ ஸு ஸூ ஸெ ஸே ஸை ஸொ ஸோ ஸௌ
ஹ் h ஹா ஹி ஹீ ஹு ஹூ ஹெ ஹே ஹை ஹொ ஹோ ஹௌ
க்ஷ் kṣ க்ஷ க்ஷா க்ஷி க்ஷீ க்ஷு க்ஷூ க்ஷெ க்ஷே க்ஷை க்ஷொ க்ஷோ க்ஷௌ

Numerals and symbols

Main article: Tamil numerals

Apart from the numerals (0-9), Tamil also has numerals for 10, 100 and 1000. Symbols for day, month, year, debit, credit, as above, rupee, numeral are present as well.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 100 1000
day month year debit credit as above rupee numeral time quantity

In Unicode

Main article: Tamil (Unicode block)

The Unicode range for Tamil is U+0B80–U+0BFF. Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points. Most of the non-assigned codepoints are designated reserved because they are in the same relative position as characters assigned in other South Asian script blocks that correspond to phonemes that don't exist in the Tamil script.

Like other South Asian scripts in Unicode, the Tamil encoding was originally derived from the ISCII standard. Both ISCII and Unicode encode Tamil as an abugida. In an abugida, each basic character represents a consonant and default vowel. Consonants with a different vowel or bare consonants are represented by adding a modifier character to a base character. Each codepoint representing a similar phoneme is encoded in the same relative position in each South Asian script block in Unicode, including Tamil. Although Unicode represents Tamil as an abugida all the pure consonants (consonants with no associated vowel) and syllables in Tamil can be represented by combining multiple Unicode codepoints, as can be seen in the Unicode Tamil Syllabary below.

In Unicode 5.1, named sequences were added for all Tamil pure consonants and syllables. Unicode 5.1 also has a named sequence for the Tamil ligature SRI (śrī), ஶ்ரீ . The name of this sequence is TAMIL SYLLABLE SHRII, and is composed of the Unicode sequence U+0BB6 U+0BCD U+0BB0 U+0BC0.

Tamil[1][2]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
U+0B8x
U+0B9x
U+0BAx
U+0BBx ி
U+0BCx
U+0BDx
U+0BEx
U+0BFx
Notes
1.^ As of Unicode version 8.0
2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points
Unicode Tamil Syllabary
Vowels →
Consonants

0B85

0B86

0B87

0B88

0B89

0B8A

0B8E

0B8F

0B90

0B92

0B93

0B94
க்
0B95
0BCD

0B95
 
கா
0B95
0BBE
கி
0B95
0BBF
கீ
0B95
0BC0
கு
0B95
0BC1
கூ
0B95
0BC2
கெ
0B95
0BC6
கே
0B95
0BC7
கை
0B95
0BC8
கொ
0B95
0BCA
கோ
0B95
0BCB
கௌ
0B95
0BCC
ங்
0B99
0BCD

0B99
 
ஙா
0B99
0BBE
ஙி
0B99
0BBF
ஙீ
0B99
0BC0
ஙு
0B99
0BC1
ஙூ
0B99
0BC2
ஙெ
0B99
0BC6
ஙே
0B99
0BC7
ஙை
0B99
0BC8
ஙொ
0B99
0BCA
ஙோ
0B99
0BCB
ஙௌ
0B99
0BCC
ச்
0B9A
0BCD

0B9A
 
சா
0B9A
0BBE
சி
0B9A
0BBF
சீ
0B9A
0BC0
சு
0B9A
0BC1
சூ
0B9A
0BC2
செ
0B9A
0BC6
சே
0B9A
0BC7
சை
0B9A
0BC8
சொ
0B9A
0BCA
சோ
0B9A
0BCB
சௌ
0B9A
0BCC
ஞ்
0B9E
0BCD

0B9E
 
ஞா
0B9E
0BBE
ஞி
0B9E
0BBF
ஞீ
0B9E
0BC0
ஞு
0B9E
0BC1
ஞூ
0B9E
0BC2
ஞெ
0B9E
0BC6
ஞே
0B9E
0BC7
ஞை
0B9E
0BC8
ஞொ
0B9E
0BCA
ஞோ
0B9E
0BCB
ஞௌ
0B9E
0BCC
ட்
0B9F
0BCD

0B9F
 
டா
0B9F
0BBE
டி
0B9F
0BBF
டீ
0B9F
0BC0
டு
0B9F
0BC1
டூ
0B9F
0BC2
டெ
0B9F
0BC6
டே
0B9F
0BC7
டை
0B9F
0BC8
டொ
0B9F
0BCA
டோ
0B9F
0BCB
டௌ
0B9F
0BCC
ண்
0BA3
0BCD

0BA3
 
ணா
0BA3
0BBE
ணி
0BA3
0BBF
ணீ
0BA3
0BC0
ணு
0BA3
0BC1
ணூ
0BA3
0BC2
ணெ
0BA3
0BC6
ணே
0BA3
0BC7
ணை
0BA3
0BC8
ணொ
0BA3
0BCA
ணோ
0BA3
0BCB
ணௌ
0BA3
0BCC
த்
0BA4
0BCD

0BA4
 
தா
0BA4
0BBE
தி
0BA4
0BBF
தீ
0BA4
0BC0
து
0BA4
0BC1
தூ
0BA4
0BC2
தெ
0BA4
0BC6
தே
0BA4
0BC7
தை
0BA4
0BC8
தொ
0BA4
0BCA
தோ
0BA4
0BCB
தௌ
0BA4
0BCC
ந்
0BA8
0BCD

0BA8
 
நா
0BA8
0BBE
நி
0BA8
0BBF
நீ
0BA8
0BC0
நு
0BA8
0BC1
நூ
0BA8
0BC2
நெ
0BA8
0BC6
நே
0BA8
0BC7
நை
0BA8
0BC8
நொ
0BA8
0BCA
நோ
0BA8
0BCB
நௌ
0BA8
0BCC
ப்
0BAA
0BCD

0BAA
 
பா
0BAA
0BBE
பி
0BAA
0BBF
பீ
0BAA
0BC0
பு
0BAA
0BC1
பூ
0BAA
0BC2
பெ
0BAA
0BC6
பே
0BAA
0BC7
பை
0BAA
0BC8
பொ
0BAA
0BCA
போ
0BAA
0BCB
பௌ
0BAA
0BCC
ம்
0BAE
0BCD

0BAE
 
மா
0BAE
0BBE
மி
0BAE
0BBF
மீ
0BAE
0BC0
மு
0BAE
0BC1
மூ
0BAE
0BC2
மெ
0BAE
0BC6
மே
0BAE
0BC7
மை
0BAE
0BC8
மொ
0BAE
0BCA
மோ
0BAE
0BCB
மௌ
0BAE
0BCC
ய்
0BAF
0BCD

0BAF
 
யா
0BAF
0BBE
யி
0BAF
0BBF
யீ
0BAF
0BC0
யு
0BAF
0BC1
யூ
0BAF
0BC2
யெ
0BAF
0BC6
யே
0BAF
0BC7
யை
0BAF
0BC8
யொ
0BAF
0BCA
யோ
0BAF
0BCB
யௌ
0BAF
0BCC
ர்
0BB0
0BCD

0BB0
 
ரா
0BB0
0BBE
ரி
0BB0
0BBF
ரீ
0BB0
0BC0
ரு
0BB0
0BC1
ரூ
0BB0
0BC2
ரெ
0BB0
0BC6
ரே
0BB0
0BC7
ரை
0BB0
0BC8
ரொ
0BB0
0BCA
ரோ
0BB0
0BCB
ரௌ
0BB0
0BCC
ல்
0BB2
0BCD

0BB2
 
லா
0BB2
0BBE
லி
0BB2
0BBF
லீ
0BB2
0BC0
லு
0BB2
0BC1
லூ
0BB2
0BC2
லெ
0BB2
0BC6
லே
0BB2
0BC7
லை
0BB2
0BC8
லொ
0BB2
0BCA
லோ
0BB2
0BCB
லௌ
0BB2
0BCC
வ்
0BB5
0BCD

0BB5
 
வா
0BB5
0BBE
வி
0BB5
0BBF
வீ
0BB5
0BC0
வு
0BB5
0BC1
வூ
0BB5
0BC2
வெ
0BB5
0BC6
வே
0BB5
0BC7
வை
0BB5
0BC8
வொ
0BB5
0BCA
வோ
0BB5
0BCB
வௌ
0BB5
0BCC
ழ்
0BB4
0BCD

0BB4
 
ழா
0BB4
0BBE
ழி
0BB4
0BBF
ழீ
0BB4
0BC0
ழு
0BB4
0BC1
ழூ
0BB4
0BC2
ழெ
0BB4
0BC6
ழே
0BB4
0BC7
ழை
0BB4
0BC8
ழொ
0BB4
0BCA
ழோ
0BB4
0BCB
ழௌ
0BB4
0BCC
ள்
0BB3
0BCD

0BB3
 
ளா
0BB3
0BBE
ளி
0BB3
0BBF
ளீ
0BB3
0BC0
ளு
0BB3
0BC1
ளூ
0BB3
0BC2
ளெ
0BB3
0BC6
ளே
0BB3
0BC7
ளை
0BB3
0BC8
ளொ
0BB3
0BCA
ளோ
0BB3
0BCB
ளௌ
0BB3
0BCC
ற்
0BB1
0BCD

0BB1
 
றா
0BB1
0BBE
றி
0BB1
0BBF
றீ
0BB1
0BC0
று
0BB1
0BC1
றூ
0BB1
0BC2
றெ
0BB1
0BC6
றே
0BB1
0BC7
றை
0BB1
0BC8
றொ
0BB1
0BCA
றோ
0BB1
0BCB
றௌ
0BB1
0BCC
ன்
0BA9
0BCD

0BA9
 
னா
0BA9
0BBE
னி
0BA9
0BBF
னீ
0BA9
0BC0
னு
0BA9
0BC1
னூ
0BA9
0BC2
னெ
0BA9
0BC6
னே
0BA9
0BC7
னை
0BA9
0BC8
னொ
0BA9
0BCA
னோ
0BA9
0BCB
னௌ
0BA9
0BCC

Programmatic access

See also

Notes

  1. https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/bfq/Main_Page
  2. Allen, Julie (2006), The Unicode 5.0 Standard (5 ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-321-48091-0 at p. 324
  3. Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009), Ethnologue: Languages of the World (16th ed.), Dallas, Tex.: SIL International, retrieved 2009-08-28
  4. University of Madras Tamil Lexicon, page 148: "அலியெழுத்து [ aliyeḻuttu n ali-y-eḻuttu . < அலி¹ +. 1. The letter , as being regarded neither a vowel nor a consonant; ஆய்தம். (வெண்பாப். முதன்மொ. 6, உரை.) 2. Consonants; மெய்யெ ழுத்து. (பிங்.)."]
  5. 1 2 Mahadevan 2003, p. 173.
  6. Mahadevan 2003, p. 230.
  7. Mahadevan 2003, p. 211.
  8. Mahadevan 2003, p. 209.
  9. Mahadevan 2003, p. 213.
  10. Mahadevan 2003, p. 212.
  11. http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2010/10256r-extended-tamil.pdf
  12. http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2010/10407-ext-tamil-follow2.pdf
  13. https://pypi.python.org/pypi/Open-Tamil/

References

External links

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