Indo-Aryan languages

Indo-Aryan
Indic
Geographic distribution:	South Asia
Linguistic classification:	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan
Proto-language:	Proto-Indo-Aryan
Subdivisions:	Dardic Northern Zone Northwestern Zone Western Zone Central Zone Eastern Zone Southern Zone (the NW, W, C, and E zones all include languages traditionally counted as dialects of Hindi)
ISO 639-5:	inc
Linguasphere:	59= (phylozone)
Glottolog:	indo1321[1]
1978 map showing Geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan languages. (Urdu is included under Hindi. Romani, Domari, and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map.)

The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages are the dominant language family of the Indian subcontinent, spoken largely by Indo-Aryan people. They constitute a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. Indo-Aryan speakers form about one half of all Indo-European speakers (about 1.5 of 3 billion), and more than half of all Indo-European languages recognized by Ethnologue.

The largest in terms of native speakers are Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu, about 250 million), Bengali (about 200 million), Punjabi (about 100 million),^[2] Marathi (about 70 million), Gujarati and Rajasthani (about 50 million each), Bhojpuri (about 40 million), Odia (about 30 million), Sindhi (about 25 million), Saraiki (20 million) and Nepali, Sinhala and Assamese (about 15 million each), with a total number of native speakers of more than 900 million.

History

Indian subcontinent

• Proto-Indo-Aryan (reconstructed)
• Old Indo-Aryan (ca. 1500–300 BCE)
  • early Old Indo-Aryan: Vedic Sanskrit (1500 to 500 BCE)
  • late Old Indo-Aryan: Epic Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit (500 to 300 BCE)
• Middle Indo-Aryan or Prakrits, Old Odia (ca. 300 BCE to 1500 CE) [see]
• Early Modern Indo-Aryan (Mughal period, 1500 to 1800)
  • early Dakkhini (Kalmitul-hakayat 1580)
  • emergence of Khariboli (Gora-badal ki katha, 1620s)

Old Indo-Aryan

The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit, the proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages that is used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent, the foundational canon of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age to the language of the Rigveda, but the only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialized loanwords.

In about the 4th century BCE, the Vedic Sanskrit language was codified and standardized by the grammarian Panini, called "Classical Sanskrit" by convention.

Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrits)

Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. The oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardha Magadhi, respectively. By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan dialects. "Apabhramsa" is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the Sravakachar of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book.

The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing Turco-Mongol Mughal empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoptation of the foreign language by the Mughal emperors. However, Persian was soon displaced by Hindustani. This Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian, Arabic, and Turkic elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects.

The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were Bengali and Hindustani; others include Gujarati, Odia, Marathi, and Punjabi.

New Indo-Aryan

Dialect continuum

The Indo-Aryan languages of Northern India and Pakistan form a dialect continuum. What is called "Hindi" in India is frequently Standard Hindi, the Sanskrit-ized version of the colloquial Hindustani spoken in the Delhi area since the Mughals. However, the term Hindi is also used for most of the central Indic dialects from Bihar to Rajasthan. The Indo-Aryan prakrits also gave rise to languages like Gujarati, Assamese, Bengali, Odia, Nepali, Marathi, and Punjabi, which are not considered to be part of this dialect continuum.

Hindustani

In the Hindi-speaking areas, for a long time the prestige dialect was Braj Bhasha, but this was replaced in the 19th century by the Khariboli-based Hindustani. Hindustani was strongly influenced by Sanskrit and Persian, with these influences leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard Urdu as registers of the Hindustani language.^[3][4] This state of affairs continued until the Partition of India in 1947, when Hindi became the official language in India and Urdu became official in Pakistan; because the basic grammar remains identical, the difference is more sociolinguistic than on actual language basis.^[5][6][7]

Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni

Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggest that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, turn, round in the horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general ^[8]

Another text has babru (babhru, brown), parita (palita, grey), and pinkara (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha, ≈ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen, Heidelberg, 1986–2000; Vol. II:358).

Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu 'having good relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic Tvastr "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736).

Romani language

The Romani language is usually included in the Central Indo-Aryan languages.^[9] Romani is conservative in maintaining almost intact the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, and in maintaining consonantal endings for nominal case – both features that have been eroded in most other modern languages of Central India. It shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person concord with the languages of the Northwest, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further proof that Romani originated in the Central region, then migrated to the Northwest.

There are no known historical documents about the early phases of the Romani language.

Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be classed as a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000.

The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, and its reduction to just a two-way case system, nominative vs. oblique. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation. Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this old system even today.

It is argued that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि (agni) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग (āg) in Hindi and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have been cited as evidence that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, perhaps even as late as the tenth century.

Classification

There can be no definitive enumeration of Indic languages, because their dialects merge into one another. Named languages are therefore social constructs as much as objective ones. The major ones are illustrated here; for the details, see the dedicated articles.

The classification follows Masica (1991) and Kausen (2006).

Dardic

The representative languages are:

Pashayi, Khowar, Kohistani, Shina, Kashmiri.

Northern Zone

Central Pahari

Garhwali, Kumauni

Eastern Pahari

Nepali (Gurkhali), etc.

Northwestern Zone

Dogri–Kangri region

The Punjabi-speaking region

Dogri–Kangri (Western Pahari)

Dogri, Kangri, Mandeali, etc.

Punjabi (Eastern Punjabi)

Lahnda (Western Punjabi)

Sindhi

Western Zone

Rajasthani

Marwari, Rajasthani

Gujarati

Bhil

Khandeshi

Central Zone (Madhya or Hindi)

Indic, Central Zone

Western Hindi

Hindustani, Haryanvi, etc.

Eastern Hindi

Fijian Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, etc.

Domari–Romani and related Parya historically belonged to the Central Zone but lost intelligibility with other languages of the group due to geographic distance and numerous grammatical and lexical innovations.

Eastern Zone (Magadhan)

These languages derive from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa.^[10]

Bihari

Bhojpuri (incl. Caribbean Hindustani), Maithili, etc.

Tharu

Odia

Halbic

Bengali–Assamese

Southern Zone languages

This group of languages developed from Maharashtri. It is not clear if Dakhini (Deccani, Southern Urdu) is part of Hindustani along with Standard Urdu, or a separate Persian-influenced development from Marathi.

Marathi

Konkani

Insular Indic

Sinhalese, Maldivian

The insular languages share several characteristics that set them apart significantly from the continental languages.

Unclassified

The following languages are related to each other, but otherwise unclassified within Indo-Aryan:

Kuswaric^[11]

Dhanwar (Rai), Bote and Darai

Chinali–Lahul Lohar^[12]

Chinali, Lahul Lohar

The following other poorly attested languages are listed as unclassified within the Indo-Aryan family by Ethnologue 17:

• Kanjari (Punjabi?), Od (Marathi?), Vaagri Booli, Andh, Kumhali, Sonha (perhaps in Central).

Also Degaru, Mina, Bhalay and Gowlan = Gowli, which are castes rather than languages.

Phonology

Consonants

Stop positions^[13]

The normative system of New Indo-Aryan stops consists of five points of articulation: labial, dental, "retroflex", palatal, and velar, which is the same as that of Sanskrit. The "retroflex" position may involve retroflexion, or curling the tongue to make the contact with the underside of the tip, or merely retraction. The point of contact may be alveolar or postalveolar, and the distinctive quality may arise more from the shaping than from the position of the tongue. Palatals stops have affricated release and are traditionally included as involving a distinctive tongue position (blade in contact with hard palate). Widely transcribed as [tʃ], Masica (1991:94) claims [cʃ] to be a more accurate rendering.

Moving away from the normative system, some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates [ts] instead of palatal, though some among them retain [tʃ] in certain positions: before front vowels (esp. /i/), before /j/, or when geminated. Alveolar as an additional point of articulation occurs in Marathi and Konkani where dialect mixture and others factors upset the aforementioned complementation to produce minimal environments, in some West Pahari dialects through internal developments (*t̪ɾ, t̪ > /tʃ/), and in Kashmiri. The addition of a retroflex affricate to this in some Dardic languages maxes out the number of stop positions at seven (barring borrowed /q/), while a reduction to the inventory involves *ts > /s/, which has happened in Assamese, Chittagonian, Sinhala (though there have been other sources of a secondary /ts/), and Southern Mewari.

Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and Romany, which have lost the characteristic dental/retroflex contrast, and in Chittagonian, which may lose its labial and velar articulations through spirantization in many positions (> [f, x]).

Stop series	Language(s)
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /tʃ/, /k/	Hindi, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Bihari, Maithili, Sinhala, Oriya, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari)
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /k/	Nepali, dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda's Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri)
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /k/	Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /tʂ/, /k/	Shina, Bashkarik, Gawarbati, Phalura, Kalasha, Khowar, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai
/p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /k/	Rajasthani's S. Mewari
/p/, /t̪/, /t/, /ts/, /tɕ/, /k/	E. and N. dialects of Bengali (Dhaka, Mymensing, Rajshahi),
/p/, /t/, /k/	Assamese
/p/, /t/, /tʃ/, /k/	Romani
/t̪/, /ʈ/	Chittagonian

Nasals^[14]

Sanskrit was noted as having five nasal-stop articulations corresponding to its oral stops, and among modern languages and dialects Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurasthtri, and Sindhi have been analyzed as having this full complement of phonemic nasals /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/, with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a homorganic nasal + stop cluster ([ɲj] > [ɲ] and [ŋɡ] > [ŋ]), though there are other sources as well.

Charts

The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, as presented in Masica (1991:106–107), though here they are in IPA. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with "very low functional load". The arrangement is roughly geographical.

Romani p t (ts) tʃ k pʲ tʲ kʲ b d (dz) dʒ ɡ bʲ dʲ ɡʲ pʰ tʰ tʃʰ kʰ m n nʲ (f) s ʃ x (fʲ) sʲ v (z) ʒ ɦ vʲ zʲ ɾ l lʲ j	Shina p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ tʂ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɖʐ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ tʂʰ kʰ m n s ɲ ŋ (f) s ɽ w j	Kashmiri p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ k pʲ t̪ʲ ʈʲ tsʲ kʲ b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ bʲ d̪ʲ ɖʲ ɡʲ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ kʰ pʲʰ t̪ʲʰ ʈʲʰ tsʲʰ kʲʰ m n ɲ mʲ nʲ s ʃ sʲ z ɦ zʲ ɦʲ ɾ l ɾʲ lʲ w j wʲ
Saraiki p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ m n s ɲ ŋ mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s (ʃ) (x) (z) (ɣ) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ w j wʱ	Punjabi p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ m n s [ɲ ŋ (f) s ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɭ [w] [j]	Nepali p t̪ ʈ ts k b d̪ ɖ dz ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ ɡʱ m n ŋ mʱ nʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɾʱ lʱ [w] [j]	Assamese p t k b d ɡ pʰ tʰ kʰ bʱ dʱ ɡʱ m n ŋ s x z ɦ ɾ l [w]
Sindhi p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ m n s ɲ ŋ mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s (ʃ) (x) (z) (ɣ) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ w j wʱ	Marwari p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ̪ ɗ ɠ m n s mʱ nʱ s ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɭ w j wʱ	Hindustani p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n (f) s ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɽʱ ([w]) ([j])	Assamese p t k b d g pʰ tʰ kʰ bʱ dʱ ɡʱ m n ŋ s x z ɦ ɾ l [w]
Bengali p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɽ [w] [j]	Gujarati p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n s mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l m ɾʱ lʱ w j	Marathi p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dz dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n s mʱ nʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l m ɾʱ lʱ w j wʱ	Oriya p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n s s ɦ ɾ l [ɽ] ɭ [ɽʱ] [w] [j]	Sinhala p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɡ ᵐb ⁿ̪d̪ ᶯɖ ᵑɡ m n ɲ ŋ s ɦ ɾ l w j

Language comparison chart

English	Vedic Sanskrit	Gujarati	Rajasthani	Marathi	Hindustani	Punjabi	Sindhi	Bengali	Kashmiri	Konkani	Bhojpuri	Odia	Assamese	Maithili	Sinhala	Nepali	Pali	Romani	Saraiki (Southern Punjabi)
beautiful	sundara	sundar	futaro	sundar	sundar	sohnā	suhɳā	shundôr	sondar	Chand,sundar	suhnar/khapsoorat	sundara	dhuniya, xundôr	sundar	sonduru,sundara	sundar	sundaro	shukar	sohnra
blood	rakta, loha, lohita, shoNita	lohi, khoon, rakt	ragat	rakta	khūn, rakta, lahū	lahū, khūn	ratu	rôkto, lohit, lohu	ratth	rakt,ragat	khūn, lahū	rakta	tez	shonit	le,rudiraya,ruhiru	ragat	ratta	rat	laho, rat
bread	rotika,polika	paũ, roṭlā	falko	chapāti, poli, bhākarī	chapātī, roṭī	roṭi	pʰulko	(pau-)ruṭi	tçhot	roti,rot,polo,poli,chapati,pav	roṭī	pauruṭi	pauruti, ruti	roṭi	paan	paũroṭi		manro	roti, ma(n)ri, dhodha
bring	anayati	lā-	lajyo	ān-	lā-	lyā	ɖe	ano	ann	haad	lāv-	nai an-	an-	anaah	ghenna	lyaunu		anel	ghin aa, Lai aa
brother	bhrātr, bandhu, sahodara	bhāi	beero, bhayo, veer	bhau, bandhu	bhāī	prā, pāi, vīr	bʱau	bhai	boéy	bhav,bhau	bhāī, bhaīyā	bhai, bhaina	bhaiti		sahodaraya, beeya	bhaai, dai, daju		phral	bhrā, vīr, lala
come	āgachchhati	āv-	av-	yē	ā-	ā, āo, ājā	ach	asho, ai	vall	yo,ye	āv-	ās-, ā-	ah-	ā-	enna	āunu	āgachcha	āvel	āo
cry	roditi, rauti, krandati	raḍ-	rodno, roosno	raḍ-	rō-	rō-	rōaɳ	kãd, kando-, rodan	wódun	rad-	ro-	kanda	kand-		adanawa,handanawa	runu	rodanam	rovel	rovanra
dark	andhaḥkāra	andhārũ	gairo	andhār	andhera	hanerā	ôndʱah	ôndhokar, ãdhar	anyí-got	andhakar,andhar,kalokh	anhār, anhera	andhāra	andhar, ôndhôkar		anduru,andhakara	andhyaro	andhakaaro	kalo	andhara
daughter	putrī, duhitr	chhokḍi	sagi, sago, chori	lek, mulagī, poragī	beṭi	tī, kuri	dʱī	meye	koor	dhuv	dhiyā, beṭi, chhori	jhiya	ziyari, ziyek		duva,du	chhori		chhai	Dhee
day	divasa, dina	divas	dina, din	divas, din,dina	din	din, dihara	ɖīhn	din, dibôsh	dóh	dis,din,divas	din	dina	din		dinaya,dawasa	din		dives	denh, jehara
do	karoti	kar-	kar-	kar-	kar-	kar-	kar-	koro	kar	kor	kar-	kara-	kôr-	kar-	karanna	garnu		kerel	karo
door	dvāra, kapāṭa	kerel	kivand	dār, darvāzā	darvāzā, kavad	būha, dar, darvāza	darvāzo	dôrja, dur	darwaaz, dār, daer ("window")	daar,kavad	darvājā, kevadi	daraja, kabata	duwar, dôrza		dora,duwaraya	dhoka		vudar	buha, dar
die	mr-, glah-	mar-	mar-	mar-	mar-, mar jā-	mar-, mar ja-	mar-	môr, more ja-, mara ja-	marun	mar	mu, mar ja	mar-	môr-		maranaya,maruna	marnu		merel	marna
egg	aṇḍa, ḍimba	iṇḍũ	ando	aṇḍa	anḍā	aṇḍā	aṇɖo, bedo	ḍim	thool	tanti(Dravidian origin),ande	anḍā	anḍā, ḍimba	kôni		bitharaya,biju	andaa		anro	anda, aana
salt	kṣāra, sala, lavaṇa	mithu	loon	lavan/meeth	namak	lūn/nūn namak	lūn	lobon/noon	noon	mith,loni	noon/namak	labana	nimôkh, lôbôn	nimak/noon	lunu	nun	khar/lavan	lon	loon/noon
earth	pṛthvi, mahi, bhuvana, dharitrī	pruthvi	dharti, basudhara	pruthvi, dharani	prithvī, dhartī, zamīn	jag, jahān, tarti, zamīn	dhartī	prithibi, duniya	daertī (voiced-aspirated /dh/ > /d/)	dhartari,zamin,bhui,pruthvi	jamīn, pirthvi	pruthibi	prithiwi		pruthuvi,polova,bhoomi,bima	prithivi		phuv	zameen, dharti
eye	netra, lochna, akshi, chakshu	āñkh	aankharli	netra, ḍoḷā	āñkh	akh	akh	chokh	aéchh	dolo	āñkh	ākhi	sôku	ainkh	asa,akshi,neth,nuwan	aankha		yakh	akh
father	pitr, janaka, tāta	bāp	baap, kaako	pitā, vaḍil, bāba	bāp	piyō, abba	piu, baba	bābā, abbā, bap	mol, bab	bapuy,anna	bāp, bābuji, pitāji	bāpa, bābā	dêuta		piya,thatha	buwā, pitā		dad	abbā, piyoo
fear	bhaya, bhīti, traasa	bik, ḍar	bhau	bhītī, bhaya, ghābra	ḍar, ghabrāhat	ḍar	ɖapu	bhôe, ḍôr	dar	bhay	ḍar	ḍara	bhoy	bhay	baya,biya	dar		dar, trash	darr
finger	añguli, añguliyaka	āñgḷi	aangli	bōt	anguli, ungli	ungal, ungli	aŋur	ang-gul	ungij	bot,aangal	anguri	ānguthi	aŋuli	āngur	angili	aunla		angusht	ungil
fire	agni, bhujyu	agni, jvaḷa	baste	āg, agni, jāl	āg	agg	bāh	agun	agénn, nār	ujo(from Sanskrit udyota),aag,agni	āgh	agni, nia	zui		agni,gini	āgo	manta	yag	bhaa
fish	matsya	māchhli	maachhali	māsa	machhlī	machhī	machhī	machh	gāda	nuste,masoli	machhri	mācha	mass		masun,mathasya,malu	māchā		machho	machhey
food	bhojana, khadati, anna, posha(Na), āhāra, etc.	anna, khorāk, poshaṇ	khaano, lyojibhaya	jēvana, bhojan	khānā, bhojan	khānā	khādho,ann, māni	khabar	khyann	jevan,anna	khana, ann-roti	khādya, bhojana	ahar, khaiddyô, khuwa bostu		āhāra,kema,bojun,bhojana	khānā, anna, āhār		xal	roti-tukkur, khanra
go	gachchhati, yāti	jā-	jā-	jā-	jā-	jā-	vaɲ	ja-, jao-, gê-	gatçh	vach(from Vedic Ach)	jā	ja-	zu-, za-		yanna	janu		jal	vanj
god	deva, ishwara, parmeshwara, devata, bhagavān, etc.	parmeshvar, dev, bhagvān	isar, bavji, dai	dev, parmeshwar, ishwar	bhagvān, parmeshvar, ishvar, khudā	pagvān, rab, waheguru, khudā	bhagvān, parmeshvar, ishvar, khudā, sāin, mālik	bhôgoban, rab, ishshor, khoda	dai, divta, bagvān, parmeeshar	dev,sarvesvar,saib(from Persian Saheb)	bhagvān, mālik, iswar, daiva, daiya	bhagabāna, ṭhākura, diyan	debôta, bhôgôwan		devi,devathava	bhagawaan, dewataa, ishwor		devel	rab, mālik
good	shobhna, uttama	sārũ	chokho	changla	achhā	changa, wadia, palā	suʈʰo	bhalo	rut (moral "good"), jān (physical "good")	bare,chand,layk	badhiya, changa, achha	bhāla	bhal	neek, neeman	hondhai	raamro		lachho, mishto	changa
grass	trNa, kusha	ghāsthāro	chaaro	gavata	ghās	kāh	ghãhu	ghash	dramunn	tan(from Prakrit tiNa,Sanskrit TrNa)	ghās	ghāsa	ghã		thana,thruna	ghaas		char	ghā
hand	hasta	hāth	haat	hāt	hāth	hath	hatʰu	hat	atth	haat	hāth	hāta	hat		atha,hasthaya	hāt		vast	hat
head	shira, mastaka, kapāla, mūrdhā	māthũ	sir,maatha	ḍoke	sir, shīsh	sir, sīs	matʰo	matha	kalla	maate(from Prakrit matthao,Sanskrit Mastaka),Takali(Dravidian origins)	sīr	munḍa	mur		oluwa,sirasa	tauko, seer		shero	ser
heart	hrdaya	hruday	hivado, kaljo	rudaya	dil	dil	dil	hridôe	ryeda	Hadde(From Prakrit Hiaaya,Haddya,Sanskrit Hrdaya),Kalij(Persian origin)	dil, hivara, jiyara	hrudaya	hridoy, hiyan		hada,herdaya	hridaya, mutu		ilo	Dil
horse	ashva, ghotaka, hayi, turanga	ghoḍũ	ghodo	ghoda	ghoṛa	koṛa	ghoɽʱo	ghoṛa	gur	ghodo,Vaaru(old Konkani)	ghoṛa	ghoda	ghůra		ashvaya,thuranga	ghoda		khoro, grast	ghora
house	grha, alaya	ghar	ghar, taaparo	ghar	kār	ghôr	ɡʱar, jaɡʱah	gar (voiced-aspirate /gh/ > /g/)	ghar	ghar	ghar	ghôr	ghôr	gedhara,gruha	ghar		kher	ghar
hunger	bubuksha, kshudhā	bhukh	bhukh	bhūkh	bhūkh	pukh	bhūkhayal	khide	bo'tchh	bhuk	bhūkh	bhoka	bhuk		kusagini,badagini	bhok		bokh	bhuk
language	bhāshā, vāNī	bhāshā	boli, zaban	bhāshā	bhāshā, zabān	boli, zabān, pasha	ɓoli, bhasha, zabān	bhasha	booyl, zabān	bhasha,bhas	bhākhā, boli, jubaan	bhāsā	bhaxa	bhāshā	bhashawa,basa	bhaashaa		chhib	boli, zaban
laugh (v.)	hāsa, smera	has-	has-	hās-	hãs-	has-	kʰillu	hãsh-	assun	has-	hãs-	hās-	hã-		hina,sinaha,sina	hasnu		asal	khill
life	jivana, jani	jivan, jindagi	bhav	jīvan, jīv	jīvan, zindagī	jindrī, jīvan, zindagi	zindagī	jibon	zoo, zindagayn	jivit,jivan	jinigi	jibana, prāna	ziwôn	jiban	jeevithe	jeewan, jindagi		jivipen	zindgey
moon	chandramā, soma, māsa	chandra, chāndo	chaan, chando	chandra	chandramā, chandā, chānd	chann, chānd	chanɖ	chãd, chôndro	tçandram	chandra,chandrim	channa, channarma, mah	chandra	zunbai, zun		chandra,sandu,handa	chandramā, juun		chhon	chandr
mother	janani, mātr	mā, bā	mai, ma	āi, māi	mā	mā, bebe, amma	māo, amma	ma, amma, mao	maeyj	amma,mai	matāri, māi, amma	mā, bou	ai, ma	myay	mawa,amma,matha	aamaa, maataa		dai	amma, maa
mouth		moḍhũ, mukha	moondo	tond, mukha	mūñh	mūñh, mukh	mūñh, vāt	aaes	mūñh	tond,mukh	mūñh	mukh	moonh, mukh	mukha, kata		mui	mukh
name	nāma	nām	naam	nāv	nām	nā	nālo	nam	naav	naav	nā, nām	nāma, nā	nam	nām	nama	nām		nav	nā
night	raatri, rajani, nishā, naktam, etc.	rāt, rātri, nishā	raati, raat	rātra	rāt, rātri, nishā	rāt	rāt	rat, ratri, ratro	raath	raat,ratri	rāt	rāti	rati	rat	rāthriya,rae	raat, raatri			raat
open	uttana, udhatita	khullũ	khulyuda	khol, ughad	khulā	khulla, khol	khol	khola	khol	ughad,ukt-	khullā	kholā	khula		harinna	khulla		rat	khulla
peace	shānti	shānti, shāntatā	shaanti	shānti	shānti, aman	shānti, aman, sakūn	shānti, aman	shanti	aman, shaenti	shanti,santatay	sānti-sakoon, aman	sānti	xanti	shaanti, aman	samaya,shāntiya	shaanti		kotor	aman, sakoon
place	stapana, sthala, bhu, sthāna	jagyā, sthaļ	jageh	sthān, sthal, jāga	sthān, jagah	jagā, thāñ, asthān	jaɠah, thāñ	jaega, sthan, jomin	jaay	jago,thal	jagah	jāgā	thai		sthanaya	thaaun, sthal		than	jaga
queen	rāni, rājpatni	rāṇi, madhurāṇi	raani	rāni, rājmātā	rāni, malkā	rāni, malka	rāɳi	rāni	māhraeny (also used for "newly-wed bride")	raani	rāni, begam	rāṇi	rani		rajina,devi,bisawa	rāni		rani, thagarni	ranri, malka
read	pathati, vachana	vānch-	baanch-	vāch-	paṛh-	paṛh-	paɽʱ-	pôṛ-	parun	vajji/vaach	paṛh-	paḍh-	pôṛh-		kiyawanna	padh-		chaduvu	parhnra, parh
rest	vishrāma	ārām	aaraam	vishrām	ārām	arām	ārām	aram, bishrom	araam	aaraam	rām	ārām, visrām	zirani		vishrāma shalawa,thanayama	ārām, bishrām			Araam
say	vadati, braviti, brūté,	bōl-	bōl-, sāng-	bōl-, keh-	bōl, ākh, keh	cau - chau	bôl-	vann	bōl-	mhan,sang,ulay	bol-, kah-	kũ-	baiju	pawasanna,kiyanna	bhannu		phenel	bol, aakh
sister	svasr, bhagini	bêhn	bain, bayee, beeri	bhagini, baheen	behn	pēn, didi	bēɳ	bon, apa, didi	baeynn	bhain	bahin, didi, didiya	bhauṇi	bhonti	bahin	bhaen,bhaengi	sohouri,souri		phen	bheinr
small	alpa, laghu, kanishtha, kshudra	nāhnũ	nāhnũ	lahān, laghu	chhoṭā	nikka, chhoṭā	nanɖo	chhoṭo	lokutt, nyika, pyoonth	Saan	chhoṭ, nanhi	choṭa, sana	xoru	chhoit	chuti,podi	saano		tikno, xurdo	nikka, chauta
son	sunu, putra	chhokḍo	choora, betoo	mulgā	bēṭā	put, puttar, munḍa	puʈ	chhele, pola	nyechu, pothur	poot	putt/chhora	pua	putek		puthra,putha,puthu	chhora		chhavo	putr
soul	ātmā, atasa	ātmā	aatma	ātmā	ātmā, rūh	ātmā, rūh	ātmā, rūh	attã, ãtta	āthmā	atmo,jeev	rūh	ātmā	ātmā		ātmā	ātmā		di	rooh
sun	sūrya	sūraj, sūrya	suraj	sūrya	sūrya, sūraj	sūraj	siju	shūrjo, roud	siri	surya	sūraj	sūrjya	xuirzyô, baeli	sūraj	ira,hiru,sūrya	sūrya		kham	sijh
ten	dasha	das	das	dahā	das	das, daha	ɖaha	dôsh	duh	dha	das	dasa	dôh		dahaya,dasa	dus		desh	dah
three	trī, trayah, trīNi (neut. nom. pl.)	traṇ	tiin	tīn	tīn	tin	ʈeh	tin	t're	teen	tīn	tini	tini		thuna	tin		trin	trai
village	grāma	gāñḍu	gaaon, dhaani	gāv, khēda	gāoñ	pinḍ, gāñ	ɠoʈʰ	gram, gaon	gām	ganv	gāoñ-dehāt, jageer	gān, grāma	gaon		gama,gramaya	gaun		gav	dehat, jhoauk, vasti
want	ichhati, kankshati, amati, apekshati	joi-	chai-	pāhijē, havē	chāh-	chāh-	kʰap, chāh-	chāh-	yatshun, kan'tchun	jaay-	chāh-	darakara	lôg-		oone,awashyayi	chaahanaa		kamel, mangel	chah
water	pāniya, jala	pāṇi	paani	pāṇi	pāni, jal	pāni, jal	pāṇi	pāni, jôl	poyn, zal (used for "urine" only)	udak,uda,pani,jal	pāni	pāṇi, jala	pani		jalaya,wathura,paen	pāni, jal		pani	panri
when	kada, ched	kyahre	kadine	kēvhā, kadhee	kab	kad, kadoñ	kaɖahn	kôkhon, kôbe	karr	kedna,kenna	kab	kebe	ketiyan	kakhan, kahiya	kawadhada,kedinada	kahile		kana	kadanr
wind	pavana, vāyu, vātā	havā, pavan	havaa	vāra	havā, pavan	havā, paun	havā	batash, haoa	tshath, hava	varo	hāvā	pabana	bôtãh		hulan, sulan, pavana, vathaya	huri, batas		balval	hava, phook
wolf	vrka, shvaka	shiyāl	bheriyo	kōlha	bhēṛhiyā	pēṛhiyā, baghiyār	ɡidʱar	sheal	vrukh	kolo	bhērhiyā	gadhiyā	xiyal	siyār	vurkaya	shyaal, bwanso		ruv	baghiyaar
woman	nāri, vanitā, strī, mahilā, lalanā	mahilā, nāri	lugai, aurat	bāi, mahilā, stree	aurat, strī, mahilā, nāri	aurat, zanāni, tīvīn	māi	mohila, nari, shtri	zanaan	baayal,stree	mehraru, aurat, janaani	stree, nāri	mohila, maiki manuh		kanthawa,gahaniya,sthriya, mahilawa,lalanawa,liya,landa,vanithawa	mahilaa, naari, stree		juvli	aurat, treimat, zaal, zanaani
year	varsh, shārad	varash	saal, uun	varsh	sāl, baras, varsh	sāl, varah	sāl	bôchhor	váreeh	vars	sāl, baris, barikh	barsa	bôsôr	barxa	varshaya	barsha		bersh	saal
yes / no	hyah, kam / na, ma	hā / nā	hon/koni	hōy, hō, hā / nāhi, nā	hāñ / nā, nahīñ	hāñ, āho / nā, nahīñ	hā/ na	hê, hoi, ho, oi / na	aa / ná, ma	Vayi/naa	hāñ / nā	han /	hoi / nohoi		ow / nā	ho / hoina, la / nai		va / na	ha / na
yesterday	hyah, gatadinam, gatakāle	(gai-)kāl(-e)	kaal	kāl	kal	kal	kal	(gôto-)kal(-ke)	kāla, rāth	kaal	kālh	(gata-)kāli	(zuwa-)kali		ēyeh	hijo		ij	kal
English	Vedic Sanskrit	Gujarati	Rajasthani	Marathi	Hindi	Punjabi	Sindhi	Bengali	Kashmiri	Konkani	Bhojpuri	Odia	Assamese	Maithili	Sinhala	Nepali	Pali	Romani	Saraiki (Southern Punjabi)

See also

• Indo-Aryans
• Indo-Iranians
• Indo-Aryan migration
• Proto-Vedic Continuity
• The family of Brahmic scripts
• Linguistic history of India
• Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil
• Languages of India

References

1. Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Indo-Aryan". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
2. "världens-100-största-språk-2010". Nationalencyclopedin. Govt. of Sweden publication. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
3. Kulshreshtha, Manisha; Mathur, Ramkumar (24 March 2012). Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity: A Case Study. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4614-1137-6.
4. Robert E. Nunley, Severin M. Roberts, George W. Wubrick, Daniel L. Roy (1999), The Cultural Landscape an Introduction to Human Geography, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-080180-1, ... Hindustani is the basis for both languages ...
5. "Urdu and its Contribution to Secular Values". South Asian Voice. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
6. "Hindi/Urdu Language Instruction". University of California, Davis. Retrieved 3 Jan 2015.
7. "Ethnologue Report for Hindi". Ethnologue. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
8. Paul Thieme, The 'Aryan' Gods of the Mitanni Treaties. JAOS 80, 1960, 301–17
9. "Romani (subgroup)". SIL International. n.d. Retrieved September 15, 2013.
10. Ray, Tapas S. (2007). "Chapter Eleven: "Oriya". In Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 445. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
11. Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Kuswaric". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
12. Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Chinali–Lahul Lohar". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
13. Masica (1991:94–95)
14. Masica (1991:95–96)

• John Beames, A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. Londinii: Trübner, 1872–1879. 3 vols.
• Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, eds. (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5.
• Madhav Deshpande (1979). Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers. ISBN 0-89720-007-1, ISBN 0-89720-008-X (pbk).
• Chakrabarti, Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 81-7074-128-9
• Erdosy, George. (1995). The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
• Kobayashi, Masato.; & George Cardona (2004). Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. ISBN 4-87297-894-3.
• Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
• Misra, Satya Swarup. (1980). Fresh light on Indo-European classification and chronology. Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
• Misra, Satya Swarup. (1991–1993). The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1–2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
• Sen, Sukumar. (1995). Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
• Vacek, Jaroslav. (1976). The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University.

External links

• The Indo Aryan languages, 10-25-2009
• The Indo-Aryan languages Colin P.Masica
• Survey of the syntax of the modern Indo-Aryan languages (Rajesh Bhatt), February 7, 2003.