Norway

Kingdom of Norway Kongeriket Norge  (Norwegian Bokmål) Kongeriket Noreg  (Norwegian Nynorsk)
Flag Coat of arms
Motto:  None (Royal motto: Alt for Norge – All for Norway)
Anthem:  Ja, vi elsker dette landet  (de facto) Yes, we love this country Royal anthem: Kongesangen The King's Song
Location of  Norway  (dark green) in Europe  (dark grey)  –  [Legend]
Location of the Kingdom of Norway and its integral overseas areas and dependencies Svalbard, Jan Mayen, Bouvet Island, Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land.
Capital and largest city		Oslo 59°56′N 10°41′E / 59.933°N 10.683°E
Official languages		Norwegian (Bokmål / Nynorsk) Sami languages Northern Sami Lule Sami Southern Sami (Official in 9 municipalities.)
Recognised regional languages		Kven Romani / Scandoromani
Writing system		Latin (Dano-Norwegian alphabet)
Ethnic groups		86% Norwegians[1] 14% other:[1] Sami (indigenous) Forest Finns, Kvens, Romani, Jews (minorities) present-day immigrants[2]
Religion		Church of Norway
Demonym		Norwegian In Norwegian: Nordmann
Government		Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
•	Monarch	Harald V
•	Prime Minister	Erna Solberg
•	President of the Storting	Olaf Michael Thommessen
•	Chief Justice	Toril Marie Øie
Legislature		Storting
History
•	Unification	872
•	Norwegian Empire (Greatest indep. extent)	1265
•	Kalmar Union	1397
•	Denmark-Norway	1524
•	Absolute monarchy	1660
•	Constitution	17 May 1814
•	Sweden-Norway	4 November 1814
•	End of Sweden-Norway	7 June 1905
•	German occupation	9 April 1940
•	Reichskommissariat Norwegen	24 April 1940
•	Quisling regime	1 February 1942
•	Restoration from German occupation	8 May 1945
Area
•	Total	385,178[3] km^2 (61st^a) 148,718 sq mi
•	Water (%)	5.2^b
Population
•	2016 estimate	5,214,900[4]
•	2015 census	5,214,890[5]
•	Density	15.5/km^2 (213th) 35/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2016 estimate
•	Total	$363.290 billion[6] (46th)
•	Per capita	$69,031[6] (4th)
GDP (nominal)		2016 estimate
•	Total	$366.873 billion[6] (22nd)
•	Per capita	$69,712[6] (3rd)
Gini (2014)		23.5[7] low · 1st
HDI (2014)		0.944[8] very high · 1st
Currency		Norwegian krone (NOK)
Time zone		CET (UTC+1)
•	Summer (DST)	CEST (UTC+2)
Date format		dd.mm.yyyy
Drives on the		right
Calling code		+47
ISO 3166 code		NO
Internet TLD		.no^c
^a.	Includes Svalbard and Jan Mayen. (Without these two areas, the area of Norway is 323,802 km^2, placing it 67th in the world.[9])
^b.	This percentage is for the mainland, Svalbard, and Jan Mayen. This percentage counts glaciers as "land". It's calculated as 19,940.14/(365,246.17+19,940.14).[3]
^c.	Two more TLDs have been assigned, but are not used: .sj for Svalbard and Jan Mayen; .bv for Bouvet Island.

Norway (ⁱ/ˈnɔːrweɪ/ NAWR-way; Norwegian:  Norge (Bokmål) or  Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a sovereign and unitary monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula plus the island Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard.^{[note 1]} The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land. Until 1814, the Kingdom included the Faroe Islands (since 1035), Greenland (1261), and Iceland (1262). It also included Shetland and Orkney until 1468.

Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of 5,109,059 people (2014).^[11] The country shares a long eastern border with Sweden (1,619 km or 1,006 mi long). Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, and the Skagerrak Strait to the south, with Denmark on the other side. Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea.

King Harald V of the German House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg is the current King of Norway. Erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet, and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution. The Kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872 the Kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, and the list of Norwegian monarchs includes over sixty kings and earls.

Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels: counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have a certain amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament and the Finnmark Act. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States. Norway is a founding member of the United Nations, NATO, the Council of Europe, the Antarctic Treaty and the Nordic Council; a member of the European Economic Area, the WTO and the OECD; and is also a part of the Schengen Area.

The country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, fresh water, and hydropower. The petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country's gross domestic product.^[12] The country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists, as well as ninth-highest on a more comprehensive ^[13] CIA list. On a per-capita basis, it is the world's largest producer of oil and natural gas outside the Middle East.^[14][15] From 2001 to 2006,^[16] and then again from 2009 to 2014, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world.^{[8][17][18][19]} Norway has also topped the Legatum Prosperity Index for the last five years.^[20]

Etymology

Opening of Ohthere's Old English account, translated: "Ohthere told his lord Ælfrede king that he lived northmost of all Norwegians ... "

Norway has two official names: Noreg in Nynorsk (Old Norse: Noregr) and Norge in Bokmål (Old Norse: Noregi, dative of Noregr).

The name Norway comes from the Old Norse word norðrvegr, "northern way" or "way leading to the north", which the Geats and the Danes named the coastline of western Norway, contrasting with suðrvegar "southern way" for Germany, and austrvegr "eastern way" for the Baltic.

Philology professor Magnus Olsen wrote that norðrvegr refers to the inner-archipelago sailing route of southwestern Norway, the home area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and that because of him, the name was extended to the entire country. The newer interpretation of the syllable is Norvegr, where nor(ve)- means narrow (Nynorsk: norve) and -(ve)gr (Nynorsk: veg) means way that refers to the sailing routes through the straits of Norway. The old meaning of the word is interpreted as "The narrow way through the strait".

In a Latin manuscript of 849, the name Northuagia is mentioned, while a French chronicle of c. 900 uses the names Northwegia and Norwegia.^[21] When Ohthere of Hålogaland visited King Alfred the Great in England in the end of the 9th century, the land was called Norðwegr (lit. Northway) and norðmanna land (lit. Northmen's land).^[21]

Old Norse norðmaðr was Latinized as Nortmannus in the 9th century to mean "Norseman, Viking", giving rise to the name of the Normans.^[22] After Norway had become Christian, Noregr and Noregi had become the most common forms, but during the 15th century the newer forms Noreg(h) and Norg(h)e, found in medieval Icelandic manuscripts, took over and have survived until modern day.

The Old Norse name was borrowed into Old English, as Norðweg, Norweg, giving rise to modern Norway by regular development via Middle English Norwey, Norwei. The adjective Norwegian, on the other hand, recorded from c. 1600, is derived from the latinization of the name as Norwegia. In the adjective Norwegian, the Old English spelling '-weg' has survived.

History

Prehistory

Nordic Bronze Age rock carvings at Steinkjer, Central Norway

The first inhabitants were the Ahrensburg culture (11th to 10th millennia BC), which was a late Upper Paleolithic culture during the Younger Dryas, the last period of cold at the end of the Weichsel glaciation. The culture is named after the village of Ahrensburg, 25 km (15.53 mi) north-east of Hamburg in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, where wooden arrow shafts and clubs have been excavated.^[23] The earliest traces of human occupation in Norway are found along the coast, where the huge ice shelf of the last ice age first melted between 11,000 and 8,000 BC. The oldest finds are stone tools dating from 9,500 to 6,000 BC, discovered in Finnmark (Komsa culture) in the north and Rogaland (Fosna culture) in the south-west. However, theories about two altogether different cultures (the Komsa culture north of the Arctic Circle being one and the Fosna culture from Trøndelag to Oslo Fjord being the other) were rendered obsolete in the 1970s.

Approximate extent of the Corded Ware culture

More recent finds along the entire coast revealed to archaeologists that the difference between the two can simply be ascribed to different types of tools and not to different cultures. Coastal fauna provided a means of livelihood for fishermen and hunters, who may have made their way along the southern coast about 10,000 BC when the interior was still covered with ice. It is now thought that these so-called "Arctic" peoples came from the south and followed the coast northward considerably later.

In the southern part of the country are dwelling sites dating from about 5,000 BC. Finds from these sites give a clearer idea of the life of the hunting and fishing peoples. The implements vary in shape and mostly are made of different kinds of stone; those of later periods are more skilfully made. Rock carvings (i.e. petroglyphs) have been found, usually near hunting and fishing grounds. They represent game such as deer, reindeer, elk, bears, birds, seals, whales, and fish (especially salmon and halibut), all of which were vital to the way of life of the coastal peoples. The carvings at Alta in Finnmark, the largest in Scandinavia, were made at sea level continuously from 4,200 to 500 BC and mark the progression of the land as it rose from the sea after the last ice age (Rock carvings at Alta).

Bronze Age

Locations of the Germanic tribes described by Jordanes in Norway

Between 3000 and 2500 BC new settlers (Corded Ware culture) arrived in eastern Norway. They were Indo-European farmers who grew grain and kept cows and sheep. The hunting-fishing population of the west coast was also gradually replaced by farmers, though hunting and fishing remained useful secondary means of livelihood.

From about 1500 BC bronze was gradually introduced, but the use of stone implements continued; Norway had few riches to barter for bronze goods, and the few finds consist mostly of elaborate weapons and brooches that only chieftains could afford. Huge burial cairns built close to the sea as far north as Harstad and also inland in the south are characteristic of this period. The motifs of the rock carvings differ from those typical of the Stone Age. Representations of the Sun, animals, trees, weapons, ships, and people are all strongly stylised.

Thousands of rock carvings from this period depict ships, and the large stone burial monuments known as stone ships, suggest that ships and seafaring played an important role in the culture at large. The depicted ships, most likely represent sewn plank built canoes used for warfare, fishing and trade. These ship types may have their origin as far back as the neolithic period and they continue into the Pre-Roman Iron Age, as exemplified by the Hjortspring boat.^[24]

Iron Age

Little has been found dating from the early Iron Age (the last 500 years BC). The dead were cremated, and their graves contain few burial goods. During the first four centuries AD the people of Norway were in contact with Roman-occupied Gaul. About 70 Roman bronze cauldrons, often used as burial urns, have been found. Contact with the civilised countries farther south brought a knowledge of runes; the oldest known Norwegian runic inscription dates from the 3rd century. At this time the amount of settled area in the country increased, a development that can be traced by coordinated studies of topography, archaeology, and place-names. The oldest root names, such as nes, vik, and bø ("cape," "bay," and "farm"), are of great antiquity, dating perhaps from the Bronze Age, whereas the earliest of the groups of compound names with the suffixes vin ("meadow") or heim ("settlement"), as in Bjorgvin (Bergen) or Saeheim (Seim), usually date from the 1st century AD.

Archaeologists first made the decision to divide the Iron Age of Northern Europe into distinct pre-Roman and Roman Iron Ages after Emil Vedel unearthed a number of Iron Age artifacts in 1866 on the island of Bornholm.^[25] They did not exhibit the same permeating Roman influence seen in most other artifacts from the early centuries AD, indicating that parts of northern Europe had not yet come into contact with the Romans at the beginning of the Iron Age.

Migration Age

Viking swords found in Norway, preserved at Bergen Museum

The destruction of the Western Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes (5th century) is characterised by rich finds, including chieftains' graves containing magnificent weapons and gold objects. Hill forts were built on precipitous rocks for defence. Excavation has revealed stone foundations of farmhouses 18 to 27 metres (59 to 89 ft) long—one even 46 metres (151 feet) long—the roofs of which were supported on wooden posts. These houses were family homesteads where several generations lived together, with people and cattle under one roof.

These states were based on either clans or tribes (e.g., the Horder of Hordaland in western Norway). By the 9th century each of these small states had things, or tings (local or regional assemblies), for negotiating and settling disputes. The thing meeting places, each eventually with a horg (open-air sanctuary) or a hov (temple; literally "hill"), were usually situated on the oldest and best farms, which belonged to the chieftains and wealthiest farmers. The regional things united to form even larger units: assemblies of deputy yeomen from several regions. In this way, the lagting (assemblies for negotiations and lawmaking) developed. The Gulating had its meeting place by Sognefjord and may have been the centre of an aristocratic confederation along the western fjords and islands called the Gulatingslag. The Frostating was the assembly for the leaders in the Trondheimsfjord area; the earls Jarls of Lade, near Trondheim, seem to have enlarged the Frostatingslag by adding the coastland from Romsdalsfjord to the Lofoten Islands.

Summary, 793 to the 1960s

Around the year 1000 A.D., two centuries of Viking raids to southern and western areas of Europe tapered off following the adoption of Christianity. Norway then expanded its overseas territories to parts of Great Britain, Ireland, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland. Norwegian power peaked in 1265 before competition from the Hanseatic League and more severely the spread of the Black Death weakened the country. In 1397, Norway became part of the Kalmar Union with Denmark and Sweden. The Union lasted until Sweden left in 1523. The remaining union with Denmark lasted nearly three centuries.

In 1814, Norwegians adopted a constitution before being forced into a personal union with Sweden. In 1905, Norway ended the union, confirmed in a referendum, ending over 500 years of monarchs residing outside the country. In the same year, the country confirmed the election of its own king. Despite its declaration of neutrality in World War II, Norway was occupied for 5 years by forces of Nazi Germany. In 1949 it abandoned neutrality, becoming a founding member of NATO. Discovery of oil in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes.

Viking Age

Viking helmet found at Gjermundbu in Buskerud, is the only Viking Age helmet that has been found

The Gokstad ship at the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo, Norway

The looting of the monastery at Lindisfarne in Northeast England in 793 by ‘harrowing inroads of heathen men’ has long been regarded as the event which marked the beginning of the Viking Age.^[26] The Viking Age was characterised by expansion and emigration by Viking seafarers. According to tradition, Harald Fairhair (Harald Hårfagre) unified them into one in 872 after the Battle of Hafrsfjord in Stavanger, thus becoming the first king of a united Norway.^[27] Harald's realm was mainly a South Norwegian coastal state. Harald Fairhair ruled with a strong hand and according to the sagas, many Norwegians left the country to live in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and parts of Britain and Ireland. The modern-day Irish cities of Dublin, Limerick and Waterford were founded by Norwegian settlers.^[28]

Norse traditions were slowly replaced by Christian ones in the 10th and 11th centuries. This is largely attributed to the missionary kings Olav Tryggvasson and St. Olav. Haakon the Good was Norway's first Christian king, in the mid-10th century, though his attempt to introduce the religion was rejected. Born sometime in between 963–969, Olav Tryggvasson set off raiding in England with 390 ships. He attacked London during this raiding. Arriving back in Norway in 995, Olav landed in Moster. There he built a church which became the first Christian church ever built in Norway. From Moster, Olav sailed north to Trondheim where he was acclaimed King of Norway by the Eyrathing in 995.^[29]

Feudalism never really developed in Norway or Sweden, as it did in the rest of Europe. However, the administration of government took on a very conservative feudal character. The Hanseatic League forced the royalty to cede to them greater and greater concessions over foreign trade and the economy. The League had this hold over the royalty because of the loans the Hansa had made to the royalty and the large debt the kings were carrying. The League's monopolistic control over the economy of Norway put pressure on all classes, especially the peasantry, to the degree that no real burgher class existed in Norway.^[30]

Kalmar Union

Norwegian Kingdom at its greatest extent, c. 1265

Upon the death of Haakon V, King of Norway, in 1319, Magnus Erikson, at just three years old, inherited the throne as King Magnus VII of Norway. At the same time a movement to make Magnus King of Sweden proved successful. (At this time both the kings of Sweden and of Denmark were elected to the throne by their respective nobles.) Thus, with his election to the throne of Sweden, both Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus VII.^[31]

In 1349, the Black Death radically altered Norway, killing between 50% and 60% of its population^[32] and leaving it in a period of social and economic decline.^[33] The plague left Norway very poor. Although the death rate was comparable with the rest of Europe, economic recovery took much longer because of the small, scattered population.^[33] Before the plague, the population was only about 500,000 people.^[34] After the plague, many farms lay idle while the population slowly increased.^[33] However, the few surviving farms' tenants found their bargaining positions with their landlords greatly strengthened.^[33]

Kalmar Union c. 1400 AD

King Magnus VII ruled Norway until 1350, when his son, Haakon, was placed on the throne as Haakon VI.^[35] In 1363, Haakon VI married Margaret, the daughter of King Valdemar IV of Denmark.^[33] Upon the death of Haakon VI, in 1379, his son, Olaf IV, was only 10 years old.^[33] Olaf had already been elected to the throne of Denmark on 3 May 1376.^[33] Thus, upon Olaf's accession to the throne of Norway, Denmark and Norway entered personal union.^[36] Olaf's mother and Haakon's widow, Queen Margaret, managed the foreign affairs of Denmark and Norway during the minority of Olaf IV.^[33]

Margaret was working toward a union of Sweden with Denmark and Norway by having Olaf elected to the Swedish throne. She was on the verge of achieving this goal when Olaf IV suddenly died.^[33] However, Denmark made Margaret temporary ruler upon the death of Olaf. On 2 February 1388 Norway followed suit and crowned Margaret.^[33] Queen Margaret knew that her power would be more secure if she were able to find a king to rule in her place. She settled on Eric of Pomerania, grandson of her sister. Thus at an all-Scandinavian meeting held at Kalmar, Erik of Pomerania was crowned king of all three Scandinavian countries. Thus, royal politics resulted in personal unions between the Nordic countries, eventually bringing the thrones of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden under the control of Queen Margaret when the country entered into the Kalmar Union.

Union with Denmark

The Battle of the Sound between an allied Dano-Norwegian–Dutch fleet and the Swedish navy, 8 November 1658 (29 October O.S.)

After Sweden broke out of the Kalmar Union in 1521, Norway tried to follow suit, but the ensuing rebellion was defeated, and Norway remained in a union with Denmark until 1814, a total of 434 years. During the national romanticism of the 19th century, this period was by some referred to as the "400-Year Night", since all of the kingdom's royal, intellectual, and administrative power was centred in Copenhagen in Denmark. In fact, it was a period of great prosperity and progress for Norway, especially in terms of shipping and foreign trade, and it also secured the country's revival from the demographic catastrophe it suffered in the Black Death. Based on the respective natural resources, Denmark–Norway was in fact a very good match, since Denmark supported Norway's needs for grain and food supplies, and Norway supplied Denmark with timber, metal, and fish.

With the introduction of Protestantism in 1536, the archbishopric in Trondheim was dissolved, and Norway lost its independence, and effectually became a colony of Denmark. The Church's incomes and possessions were instead redirected to the court in Copenhagen. Norway lost the steady stream of pilgrims to the relics of St. Olav at the Nidaros shrine, and with them, much of the contact with cultural and economic life in the rest of Europe.

Eventually restored as a kingdom (albeit in legislative union with Denmark) in 1661, Norway saw its land area decrease in the 17th century with the loss of the provinces Båhuslen, Jemtland, and Herjedalen to Sweden, as the result of a number of disastrous wars with Sweden. In the north, however, its territory was increased by the acquisition of the northern provinces of Troms and Finnmark, at the expense of Sweden and Russia.

The famine of 1695–96 killed roughly 10% of Norway's population.^[37] The harvest failed in Scandinavia at least nine times between 1740 and 1800, with great loss of life.^[38]

Union with Sweden

The 1814 constitutional assembly, painted by Oscar Wergeland

After Denmark–Norway was attacked by the United Kingdom at the Battle of Copenhagen, it entered into an alliance with Napoleon, with the war leading to dire conditions and mass starvation in 1812. As the Danish kingdom found itself on the losing side in 1814, it was forced, under terms of the Treaty of Kiel, to cede Norway to the king of Sweden, while the old Norwegian provinces of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands remained with the Danish crown.^[39]

Norway took this opportunity to declare independence, adopted a constitution based on American and French models, and elected the Crown Prince of Denmark and Norway, Christian Frederick, as king on 17 May 1814. This is the famous Syttende Mai (Seventeenth of May) holiday celebrated by Norwegians and Norwegian-Americans alike. Syttende Mai is also called Norwegian Constitution Day.

Norwegian opposition to the great powers' decision to link Norway with Sweden caused the Norwegian-Swedish War to break out as Sweden tried to subdue Norway by military means. As Sweden's military was not strong enough to defeat the Norwegian forces outright and Norway's treasury was not large enough to support a protracted war, and as British and Russian navies blockaded the Norwegian coast,^[40] the belligerents were forced to negotiate the Convention of Moss. According to the terms of the convention, Christian Frederik abdicated the Norwegian throne and authorised the Parliament of Norway to make the necessary constitutional amendments to allow for the personal union that Norway was forced to accept. On 4 November 1814 the Parliament (Storting) elected Charles XIII of Sweden as king of Norway, thereby establishing the union with Sweden.^[41] Under this arrangement, Norway kept its liberal constitution and its own independent institutions, except for the foreign service. Following the recession caused by the Napoleonic Wars, economic development of Norway remained slow until economic growth began around 1830.^[42]

Harvesting of oats in Jølster around 1890

This period also saw the rise of the Norwegian romantic nationalism, as Norwegians sought to define and express a distinct national character. The movement covered all branches of culture, including literature (Henrik Wergeland [1808–1845], Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson [1832–1910], Peter Christen Asbjørnsen [1812–1845], Jørgen Moe [1813–1882]), painting (Hans Gude [1825–1903], Adolph Tidemand [1814–1876]), music (Edvard Grieg [1843–1907]), and even language policy, where attempts to define a native written language for Norway led to today's two official written forms for Norwegian: Bokmål and Nynorsk.

King Charles III John, who came to the throne of Norway and Sweden in 1818, was the second king following Norway's break from Denmark and the union with Sweden. Charles John was a complex man whose long reign extended to 1844. He protected the constitution and liberties of Norway and Sweden during the age of Metternich. As such, he was regarded as a liberal monarch for that age. However, he was ruthless in his use of paid informers, the secret police and restrictions on the freedom of the press to put down public movements for reform—especially the Norwegian national independence movement.^[43]

The Romantic Era that followed the reign of King Charles III John brought some significant social and political reforms. In 1854, women won the right to inherit property in their own right just like men. In 1863, the last trace of keeping unmarried women in the status of minors was removed. Furthermore, women were then eligible for different occupations, particularly the common school teacher.^[44] However, by mid-century, Norway was still far from a "democracy". Voting was limited to officials, property owners, leaseholders, and burghers of incorporated towns.^[45] There was some dissatisfaction with this system.

A Sami family in Norway around 1900

Still Norway remained a conservative society. Life in Norway (especially economic life) was "dominated by the aristocracy of professional men who filled most of the important posts in the central government."^[46] There was no strong bourgeosie class in Norway to demand a breakdown of this aristocratic control of the economy.^[47] Thus, even while revolution swept over most of the countries of Europe in 1848, Norway was largely unaffected by revolts that year.^[47]

Marcus Thrane was a Utopian socialist. He made his appeal to the labouring classes urging a change of social structure "from below upwards." In 1848, he organised a labour society in Drammen. In just a few months this society had a membership of 500 and was publishing its own newspaper. Within two years 300 societies had been organised all over Norway with a total membership of 20,000 persons. The membership was drawn from the lower classes of both urban and rural areas; for the first time these two groups felt they had a common cause.^[48] In the end, the revolt was easily crushed; Thrane was captured and in 1855, after four years in jail, was sentenced to three additional years for crimes against the safety of the state. Upon his release, Marcus Thrane attempted unsuccessfully to revitalize his movement but, after the death of his wife, migrated to the United States.^[49]

In 1898, all men were granted universal suffrage, followed by all women in 1913.

A bride from Hardanger in national costume about 1900's.

Independence

Christian Michelsen, a shipping magnate and statesman, and Prime Minister of Norway from 1905 to 1907, played a central role in the peaceful separation of Norway from Sweden on 7 June 1905. A national referendum confirmed the people's preference for a monarchy over a republic. No Norwegian could legitimately claim the throne because none was able to prove relationship to medieval royalty and in European tradition royal or "blue" blood is a precondition for laying claim to the throne.

The government offered the throne of Norway to a prince of the German royal house of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. Prince Carl of Denmark was unanimously elected king by the Norwegian Parliament, the first king of a fully independent Norway in 508 years (1397: Kalmar Union); he took the name Haakon VII. In 1905, the country welcomed the prince from neighboring Denmark, his wife Maud of Wales and their young son to re-establish Norway's royal house. Following centuries of close ties between Norway and Denmark, a prince from the latter was the obvious choice for a European prince who could best relate to the Norwegian people.

First and Second World Wars

Scenes from the Norwegian Campaign in 1940

Throughout the First World War, Norway was in principle a neutral country. In reality, however, Norway had been pressured by the British to hand over increasingly large parts of its large merchant fleet to the British at low rates, as well as to join the trade blockade against Germany. Norwegian merchant marine ships, often with Norwegian sailors still on board, were then sailing under the British flag and at risk of being sunk by German submarines. Thus, many Norwegian sailors and ships were lost. Thereafter, the world ranking of the Norwegian merchant navy fell from fourth place to sixth in the world.^[50]

Norway also proclaimed its neutrality during the Second World War, but despite this it was invaded by German forces on 9 April 1940. Although Norway was unprepared for the German surprise attack (see: Battle of Drøbak Sound, Norwegian Campaign, and Invasion of Norway), military and naval resistance lasted for two months. Norwegian armed forces in the north launched an offensive against the German forces in the Battles of Narvik, until they were forced to surrender on 10 June after losing British support which had been diverted to France during the German invasion of France.

King Haakon and the Norwegian government escaped to Rotherhithe in London. Throughout the war they sent inspirational radio speeches and supported clandestine military actions in Norway against the Germans. On the day of the invasion, the leader of the small National-Socialist party Nasjonal Samling, Vidkun Quisling, tried to seize power but was forced by the German occupiers to step aside. Real power was wielded by the leader of the German occupation authority, Reichskommissar Josef Terboven. Quisling, as minister president, later formed a collaborationist government under German control. Up to 15,000 Norwegians volunteered to fight in German units, including the Waffen-SS.^[51]

Norwegian fighter pilots in the United Kingdom during World War II

The fraction of the Norwegian population that supported Germany was traditionally smaller than in Sweden but greater than is generally appreciated today. It included a number of prominent personalities such as Knut Hamsun. The concept of a "Germanic Union" of member states fit well into their thoroughly nationalist-patriotic ideology.

Many Norwegians and persons of Norwegian descent joined the Allied forces as well as the Free Norwegian Forces. In June 1940 a small group had left Norway following their king to Britain. This group included 13 ships, five aircraft, and 500 men from the Royal Norwegian Navy. By the end of the war, the force had grown to 58 ships and 7,500 men in service in the Royal Norwegian Navy, 5 squadrons of aircraft (including Spitfires, Sunderland flying boats and Mosquitos) in the newly formed Norwegian Air Force, and land forces including the Norwegian Independent Company 1 and 5 Troop as well as No. 10 Commandos.

During the five years of German occupation, Norwegians built a resistance movement which fought the German occupation forces with both civil disobedience and armed resistance including the destruction of Norsk Hydro's heavy water plant and stockpile of heavy water at Vemork, which crippled the German nuclear programme (see: Norwegian heavy water sabotage). More important to the Allied war effort, however, was the role of the Norwegian Merchant Marine. At the time of the invasion, Norway had the 4th largest merchant marine fleet in the world. It was led by the Norwegian shipping company Nortraship under the Allies throughout the war and took part in every war operation from the evacuation of Dunkirk to the Normandy landings. Each December Norway gives a Christmas tree to the United Kingdom as thanks for the British assistance during the Second World War. A ceremony takes place to erect the tree in London's Trafalgar Square.^[52]

Post-World War II history

From 1945 to 1962, the Labour Party held an absolute majority in the parliament. The government, led by prime minister Einar Gerhardsen, embarked on a programme inspired by Keynesian economics, emphasising state financed industrialisation and co-operation between trade unions and employers' organisations. Many measures of state control of the economy imposed during the war were continued, although the rationing of dairy products was lifted in 1949, while price control and rationing of housing and cars continued as long as until 1960.

Since the 1980s oil production has helped to expand the Norwegian economy and finance the Norwegian state.

The wartime alliance with the United Kingdom and the United States was continued in the post-war years. Although pursuing the goal of a socialist economy, the Labour Party distanced itself from the Communists (especially after the Communists' seizure of power in Czechoslovakia in 1948), and strengthened its foreign policy and defence policy ties with the US. Norway received Marshall Plan aid from the United States starting in 1947, joined the OEEC one year later, and became a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949.

In 1969, the Phillips Petroleum Company discovered petroleum resources at the Ekofisk field west of Norway. In 1973, the Norwegian government founded the State oil company, Statoil. Oil production did not provide net income until the early 1980s because of the large capital investment that was required to establish the country's petroleum industry. Around 1975, both the proportion and absolute number of workers in industry peaked. Since then labour-intensive industries and services like factory mass production and shipping have largely been outsourced.

Norway was a founding member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Two referendums on joining the European Union failed by narrow margins in 1972 and 1994.^[53]

Town Hall Square in Oslo filled with people with roses mourning the victims of the Utøya massacre, 22 July 2011

In 1981, a Conservative government led by Kåre Willoch replaced the Labour Party with a policy of stimulating the stagflated economy with tax cuts, economic liberalisation, deregulation of markets, and measures to curb record-high inflation (13.6% in 1981).

Norway's first female prime minister, Gro Harlem Brundtland of the Labour party, continued many of the reforms of her conservative predecessor, while backing traditional Labour concerns such as social security, high taxes, the industrialisation of nature, and feminism. By the late 1990s, Norway had paid off its foreign debt and had started accumulating a sovereign wealth fund. Since the 1990s, a divisive question in politics has been how much of the income from petroleum production the government should spend, and how much it should save. In 2011, Norway suffered two terrorist attacks on the same day conducted by Anders Behring Breivik which struck the government quarter in Oslo and a summer camp of the Labour party's youth movement at Utøya island, resulting in 77 deaths and 319 wounded. The 2013 Norwegian parliamentary election brought a more conservative government to power with the Conservative Party and the Progress Party, winning 43% of the electorate's votes.

Geography

A satellite image of continental Norway in winter

Norway map of Köppen climate classification.

Norway comprises the western part of Scandinavia in Northern Europe. The rugged coastline, broken by huge fjords and thousands of islands, stretches 25,000 kilometres (16,000 mi) and 83,000 kilometres (52,000 mi) and include fjords and islands. Norway shares a 1,619-kilometre (1,006 mi) land border with Sweden, 727 kilometres (452 mi) with Finland, and 196 kilometres (122 mi) with Russia to the east. To the north, west and south, Norway is bordered by the Barents Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea, and Skagerrak.^[54] The Scandinavian Mountains form much of the border with Sweden.

Norwegian lowland landscape near the Gaulosen branch of Trondheimsfjord

Reine in Lofoten, Northern Norway

At 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) (including Svalbard and Jan Mayen) (and 323,802 square kilometres (125,021 sq mi) without), much of the country is dominated by mountainous or high terrain, with a great variety of natural features caused by prehistoric glaciers and varied topography. The most noticeable of these are the fjords: deep grooves cut into the land flooded by the sea following the end of the Ice Age. Sognefjorden is the world's second deepest fjord, and the world's longest at 204 kilometres (127 mi). Hornindalsvatnet is the deepest lake in all Europe.^[55] Permafrost can be found all year in the higher mountain areas and in the interior of Finnmark county. Numerous glaciers are found in Norway.

Norway lies between latitudes 57° and 81° N, and longitudes 4° and 32° E.

The land is mostly made of hard granite and gneiss rock, but slate, sandstone, and limestone are also common, and the lowest elevations contain marine deposits. Because of the Gulf Stream and prevailing westerlies, Norway experiences higher temperatures and more precipitation than expected at such northern latitudes, especially along the coast. The mainland experiences four distinct seasons, with colder winters and less precipitation inland. The northernmost part has a mostly maritime Subarctic climate, while Svalbard has an Arctic tundra climate.

Because of the large latitudinal range of the country and the varied topography and climate, Norway has a larger number of different habitats than almost any other European country. There are approximately 60,000 species in Norway and adjacent waters (excluding bacteria and virus). The Norwegian Shelf large marine ecosystem is considered highly productive.^[56]

Climate

The southern and western parts of Norway, fully exposed to Atlantic storm fronts, experience more precipitation and have milder winters than the eastern and far northern parts. Areas to the east of the coastal mountains are in a rain shadow, and have lower rain and snow totals than the west. The lowlands around Oslo have the warmest and sunniest summers, but also cold weather and snow in wintertime.

Because of Norway's high latitude, there are large seasonal variations in daylight. From late May to late July, the sun never completely descends beneath the horizon in areas north of the Arctic Circle (hence Norway's description as the "Land of the Midnight Sun"), and the rest of the country experiences up to 20 hours of daylight per day. Conversely, from late November to late January, the sun never rises above the horizon in the north, and daylight hours are very short in the rest of the country.

The coastal climate of Norway is exceptionally mild compared with areas on similar latitude elsewhere in the world, with the Gulf Stream passing directly offshore the northern areas of the Atlantic coast. The temperature anomalies found in coastal locations are exceptional, with Røst and Værøy lacking a meteorological winter in spite of being north of the Arctic Circle. As a side-effect, the Scandinavian Mountains lock in continental winds from reaching the coastline, causing very cool summers throughout Atlantic Norway. Oslo has more of a continental climate, similar to the Swedish variety. The mountain ranges have subarctic and tundra climates. There is also very high rainfall at areas exposed to the Atlantic, such as Bergen. Oslo, in comparison, is very dry, being in a rain shadow.

Biodiversity

An elg in Norwegian, elk in British English, a moose in North America

The total number of species include 16,000 species of insects (probably 4,000 more species yet to be described), 20,000 species of algae, 1,800 species of lichen, 1,050 species of mosses, 2,800 species of vascular plants, up to 7,000 species of fungi, 450 species of birds (250 species nesting in Norway), 90 species of mammals, 45 fresh-water species of fish, 150 salt-water species of fish, 1,000 species of fresh-water invertebrates, and 3,500 species of salt-water invertebrates.^[57] About 40,000 of these species have been described by science. The red list of 2010 encompasses 4,599 species.^[58]

Seventeen species are listed mainly because they are endangered on a global scale, such as the European beaver, even if the population in Norway is not seen as endangered. The number of threatened and near-threatened species equals to 3,682; it includes 418 fungi species, many of which are closely associated with the small remaining areas of old-growth forests,^[59] 36 bird species, and 16 species of mammals. In 2010, 2,398 species were listed as endangered or vulnerable; of these were 1250 listed as vulnerable (VU), 871 as endangered (EN), and 276 species as critically endangered (CR), among which were the grey wolf, the Arctic fox (healthy population on Svalbard) and the pool frog.^[58]

The largest predator in Norwegian waters is the sperm whale, and the largest fish is the basking shark. The largest predator on land is the polar bear, while the brown bear is the largest predator on the Norwegian mainland. The largest land animal on the mainland is the elk (known in North America as the moose). The elk is in Norway known for its size and strength, and therefore often called skogens konge, "king of the forest".

Environment

Stunning and dramatic scenery and landscape is found throughout Norway.^[60] The west coast of southern Norway and the coast of northern Norway present some of the most visually impressive coastal sceneries in the world. National Geographic has listed the Norwegian fjords as the world's top tourist attraction.^[61] The 2014 Environmental Performance Index put Norway in tenth place, based on the environmental performance of the country's policies.

Politics and government

The Royal Palace in Oslo.

King Harald V and Queen Sonja of Norway, reigning since 1991.

The Storting is the Parliament of Norway.

Erna Solberg, the Prime Minister of Norway since 2013.

Norway is considered to be one of the most developed democracies and states of justice in the world. From 1814, c. 45% of men (25 years and older) had the right to vote, whereas the United Kingdom had c. 20% (1832), Sweden c. 5% (1866), and Belgium c. 1.15% (1840). Since 2010, Norway has been classified as the world's most democratic country by the Democracy Index.^[62][63][64]

According to the Constitution of Norway, which was adopted on 17 May 1814^[65] and inspired by the United States Declaration of Independence and French Revolution of 1776 and 1789, respectively, Norway is a unitary constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government, wherein the King of Norway is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government. Power is separated among the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government, as defined by the Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document.

The Monarch officially retains executive power. However, following the introduction of a parliamentary system of government, the duties of the Monarch have since become strictly representative and ceremonial,^[66] such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the Prime Minister and other ministers in the executive government. Accordingly, the Monarch is commander-in-chief of the Norwegian Armed Forces, and serves as chief diplomatic official abroad and as a symbol of unity. Harald V of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg was crowned King of Norway in 1991, the first since the 14th century who has been born in the country.^[67] Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway, is the legal and rightful heir to the throne and the Kingdom.

In practice, the Prime Minister exercises the executive powers. Constitutionally, legislative power is vested with both the government and the Parliament of Norway, but the latter is the supreme legislature and a unicameral body.^[68] Norway is fundamentally structured as a representative democracy. The Parliament can pass a law by simple majority of the 169 representatives, who are elected on the basis of proportional representation from 19 constituencies for four-year terms.

150 are elected directly from the 19 constituencies, and an additional 19 seats ("levelling seats") are allocated on a nationwide basis to make the representation in parliament correspond better with the popular vote for the political parties. A 4% election threshold is required for a party to gain levelling seats in Parliament.^[69] There are a total of 169 Members of Parliament.

The Parliament of Norway, called the Stortinget (meaning Grand Assembly), ratifies national treaties developed by the executive branch. It can impeach members of the government if their acts are declared unconstitutional. If an indicted suspect is impeached, Parliament has the power to remove the person from office.

The position of Prime Minister, Norway's head of government, is allocated to the Member of Parliament who can obtain the confidence of a majority in Parliament, usually the current leader of the largest political party or, more effectively, through a coalition of parties. A single party generally does not have sufficient political power in terms of the number of seats to form a government on its own. Norway has often been ruled by minority governments.

The Prime Minister nominates the Cabinet, traditionally drawn from members of the same political party or parties in the Storting, making up the government. The PM organises the executive government and exercises its power as vested by the Constitution.^[70] Reflecting its monarchical past, Norway was established under the Lutheran Church of Norway, and it continues as the state church. To form a government, the PM must have more than half the members of Cabinet be members of the Church of Norway. Currently, this means at least ten out of the 19 ministries. The issue of separation of church and state in Norway has been increasingly controversial, as many people believe it is time to change this, to reflect the growing diversity in the population. A part of this is the evolution of the public school subject Christianity, a required subject since 1739. Even the state's loss in a battle at the European Court of Human Rights at Strasbourg^[71] in 2007 did not settle the matter.

Through the Council of State, a privy council presided over by the Monarch, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet meet at the Royal Palace and formally consult the Monarch. All government bills need the formal approval by the Monarch before and after introduction to Parliament. The Council reviews and approves all of the Monarch's actions as head of state. Although all government and parliamentary acts are decided beforehand, the privy council is an example of symbolic gesture the King retains.^[67]

Members of the Storting are directly elected from party-lists proportional representation in nineteen plural-member constituencies in a national multi-party system.^[72] Historically, both the Norwegian Labour Party and Conservative Party have played leading political roles. In the early 21st century, the Labour Party has been in power since the 2005 election, in a Red-Green Coalition with the Socialist Left Party and the Centre Party.^[73]

Since 2005, both the Conservative Party and the Progress Party have won numerous seats in the Parliament, but not sufficient in the 2009 general election to overthrow the coalition. Commentators have pointed to the poor co-operation between the opposition parties, including the Liberals and the Christian Democrats. Jens Stoltenberg, the leader of the Labour Party, continues to have the necessary majority through his multi-party alliance to continue as PM.^[74]

In national elections in September 2013, voters ended eight years of Labor rule. Two political parties, Høyre and Fremskrittspartiet, elected on promises of tax cuts, more spending on infrastructure and education, better services and stricter rules on immigration, formed a government. Coming at a time when Norway's economy is in good condition with low unemployment, the rise of the right appeared to be based on other issues. Erna Solberg became prime minister, the second female prime minister after Brundtland and the first conservative prime minister since Syse. Solberg said her win was "a historic election victory for the right-wing parties".^[75]

Administrative divisions

Norway, a unitary state, is divided into nineteen first-level administrative counties (fylke). The counties are administrated through directly elected county assemblies who elect the County Governor. Additionally, the King and government are represented in every county by a fylkesmann, who effectively acts as a Governor.^[76] As such, the Government is directly represented at a local level through the County Governors' offices. The counties are then sub-divided into 430 second-level municipalities (kommunar), which in turn are administrated by directly elected municipal council, headed by a mayor and a small executive cabinet. The capital of Oslo is considered both a county and a municipality.

Norway has two integral overseas territories: Jan Mayen and Svalbard, the only developed island in the archipelago of the same name, located miles away to the north. Norway is the only nation in the world whose territory experiences both the Northern Lights (aurora borealis) and the Southern Lights (aurora australis). There are three Antarctic and Subantarctic dependencies: Bouvet Island, Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land. On most maps there had been an unclaimed area between Queen Maud Land and the South Pole until June 12, 2015 when Norway formally annexed that area.^[77]

96 settlements have city status in Norway. In most cases, the city borders are coterminous with the borders of their respective municipalities. Often, Norwegian city municipalities include large areas that are not developed; for example, Oslo municipality contains large forests, located north and south-east of the city, and over half of Bergen municipality consists of mountainous areas.

A geopolitical map of Norway, showing the 19 fylker, the Svalbard (Spitsbergen) and Jan Mayen islands, which are part of the Norwegian kingdom

The counties of Norway are:

County (fylke)	Administrative centre	Most populous municipality	Region
Østfold	Sarpsborg	Fredrikstad	Eastern Norway
Akershus	Oslo	Bærum	Eastern Norway
Oslo	City of Oslo	Oslo	Eastern Norway
Hedmark	Hamar	Ringsaker	Eastern Norway
Oppland	Lillehammer	Gjøvik	Eastern Norway
Buskerud	Drammen	Drammen	Eastern Norway
Vestfold	Tønsberg	Sandefjord	Eastern Norway
Telemark	Skien	Skien	Eastern Norway
Aust-Agder	Arendal	Arendal	Southern Norway
Vest-Agder	Kristiansand	Kristiansand	Southern Norway
Rogaland	Stavanger	Stavanger	Western Norway
Hordaland	Bergen	Bergen	Western Norway
Sogn og Fjordane	Leikanger	Førde	Western Norway
Møre og Romsdal	Molde	Ålesund	Western Norway
Sør-Trøndelag	Trondheim	Trondheim	Trøndelag
Nord-Trøndelag	Steinkjer	Stjørdal	Trøndelag
Nordland	Bodø	Bodø	Northern Norway
Troms	Tromsø	Tromsø	Northern Norway
Finnmark	Vadsø	Alta	Northern Norway
Svalbard (unincorporated area)	Longyearbyen	Longyearbyen	Northern Norway

Judicial system and law enforcement

Norway uses a civil law system where laws are created and amended in Parliament and the system regulated through the Courts of justice of Norway. It consists of the Supreme Court of 19 permanent judges and a Chief Justice, appellate courts, city and district courts, and conciliation councils.^[78] The judiciary is independent of executive and legislative branches. While the Prime Minister nominates Supreme Court Justices for office, their nomination must be approved by Parliament and formally confirmed by the Monarch in the Council of State. Usually, judges attached to regular courts are formally appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister.

The Courts' strict and formal mission is to regulate the Norwegian judicial system, interpret the Constitution, and as such implement the legislation adopted by Parliament. In its judicial reviews, it monitors the legislative and executive branches to ensure that they comply with provisions of enacted legislation.^[78]

The law is enforced in Norway by the Norwegian Police Service. It is a Unified National Police Service made up of 27 Police Districts and several specialist agencies, such as Norwegian National Authority for the Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime, known as Økokrim; and the National Criminal Investigation Service, each headed by a chief of police. The Police Service is headed by the National Police Directorate, which reports to the Ministry of Justice and the Police. The Police Directorate is headed by a National Police Commissioner. The only exception is the Norwegian Police Security Agency, whose head answers directly to the Ministry of Justice and the Police.

Norway abolished the death penalty for regular criminal acts in 1902. The legislature abolished the death penalty for high treason in war and war-crimes in 1979. Reporters Without Borders, in its 2007 Worldwide Press Freedom Index, ranked Norway at a shared first place (along with Iceland) out of 169 countries.^[79]

In general, the legal and institutional framework in Norway is characterized by a high degree of transparency, accountability and integrity, and the perception and the occurrence of corruption are very low.^[80] Norway has ratified all relevant international anti-corruption conventions, and its standards of implementation and enforcement of anti-corruption legislation are considered very high by many international anti-corruption working groups such as the OECD Anti-Bribery Working Group. However, there are some isolated cases showing that some municipalities have abused their position in public procurement processes.

Foreign relations

Royal Norwegian Navy Fridtjof Nansen class frigate

Norway maintains embassies in 86 countries.^[81] 60 countries maintain an embassy in Norway, all of them in the capital, Oslo.

Norway is a founding member of the United Nations (UN), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Council of Europe and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Norway issued applications for accession to the European Union (EU) and its predecessors in 1962, 1967 and 1992, respectively. While Denmark, Sweden and Finland obtained membership, the Norwegian electorate rejected the treaties of accession in referenda in 1972 and 1994.

After the 1994 referendum, Norway maintained its membership in the European Economic Area (EEA), an arrangement granting the country access to the internal market of the Union, on the condition that Norway implements the Union's pieces of legislation which are deemed relevant (of which there were approximately seven thousand by 2010)^[82] Successive Norwegian governments have, since 1994, requested participation in parts of the EU's co-operation that go beyond the provisions of the EEA agreement. Non-voting participation by Norway has been granted in, for instance, the Union's Common Security and Defence Policy, the Schengen Agreement, and the European Defence Agency, as well as 19 separate programmes.^[83]

Norway contributes to international development. In addition, it participated in the 1990s brokering of the Oslo Accords, an attempt to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. These were unsuccessful.

Military

Norwegian Leopard tanks in the snow in Målselv

The Norwegian Armed Forces numbers about 25,000 personnel, including civilian employees. According to 2009 mobilisation plans, full mobilisation produces approximately 83,000 combatant personnel. Norway has conscription (including 6–12 months of training);^[84] in 2013, the country became the first in Europe and NATO to draft women as well as men. However, due to less need for conscripts after the Cold War ended with the break-up of the Soviet Union, few people have to serve if they are not motivated.^[85] The Armed Forces are subordinate to the Norwegian Ministry of Defence. The Commander-in-Chief is King Harald V. The military of Norway is divided into the following branches: the Norwegian Army, the Royal Norwegian Navy, the Royal Norwegian Air Force, the Norwegian Cyber Force and the Home Guard.

In response to its being overrun by Germany in 1940, the country was one of the founding nations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 4 April 1949. At present, Norway contributes in the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan.^[86] Additionally, Norway has contributed in several missions in contexts of the United Nations, NATO, and the Common Security and Defence Policy of the European Union.

Health

Norway was awarded first place according to the UN's Human Development Index (HDI) for 2013.^[87] Poverty and communicable diseases dominated in Norway together with famines, and epidemics in the 1800s. From the 1900s improvements in public health occurred as a result of development in several areas such as social and living conditions, changes in disease and medical outbreaks, establishment of the health care system and emphasis on public health matters. Vaccination and increased treatment opportunities with antibiotics resulted in great improvements within the Norwegian population. Improved hygiene and better nutrition were factors that contributed to improved health.

The disease pattern in Norway changed from communicable diseases to non-communicable diseases and chronic diseases as cardiovascular disease. Inequalities and social differences are still present in public health in Norway today.^[88]

In 2013 the infant mortality rate was 2.5 per 1 000 live births among children under the age of one. For girls it was 2.7 and for boys 2.3, which is the lowest infant mortality rate for boys ever recorded in Norway.^[89]

Economy

Graphical depiction of Norway's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories.

GDP and GDP growth

Norwegians enjoy the second-highest GDP per-capita among European countries (after Luxembourg), and the fourth-highest GDP (PPP) per-capita in the world. Today, Norway ranks as the second-wealthiest country in the world in monetary value, with the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation.^[90] According to the CIA World Factbook, Norway is a net external creditor of debt.^[54] Norway maintained first place in the world in the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) for six consecutive years (2001–2006),^[8] and then reclaimed this position in 2009, through 2014.^[17] The standard of living in Norway is among the highest in the world. Foreign Policy Magazine ranks Norway last in its Failed States Index for 2009, judging Norway to be the world's most well-functioning and stable country. The OECD ranks Norway fourth in the 2013 equalised Better Life Index and third in intergenerational earnings elasticity.^[91][92]

Norway's exclusive economic zones

The Norwegian economy is an example of a mixed economy, a prosperous capitalist welfare state and social democracy country featuring a combination of free market activity and large state ownership in certain key sectors. Public health care in Norway is free (after an annual charge of around $230 for those over 16), and parents have 46 weeks paid^[93] parental leave. The state income derived from natural resources includes a significant contribution from petroleum production. Norway has a very low unemployment rate, currently 2.6%.^[94] 69% of the population aged 15–74 are employed.^[95] People in the labour force are either employed or looking for work.^[96] 9.5% of the population aged 18–66 receive a disability pension^[97] and 30% of the labour force are employed by the government, the highest in the OECD.^[98] The hourly productivity levels, as well as average hourly wages in Norway, are among the highest in the world.^[99][100]

The egalitarian values of Norwegian society have kept the wage difference between the lowest paid worker and the CEO of most companies as much less than in comparable western economies.^[101] This is also evident in Norway's low Gini coefficient.

The state has large ownership positions in key industrial sectors, such as the strategic petroleum sector (Statoil), hydroelectric energy production (Statkraft), aluminium production (Norsk Hydro), the largest Norwegian bank (DNB), and telecommunication provider (Telenor). Through these big companies, the government controls approximately 30% of the stock values at the Oslo Stock Exchange. When non-listed companies are included, the state has even higher share in ownership (mainly from direct oil licence ownership). Norway is a major shipping nation and has the world's 6th largest merchant fleet, with 1,412 Norwegian-owned merchant vessels.

By referendums in 1972 and 1994, Norwegians rejected proposals to join the European Union (EU). However, Norway, together with Iceland and Liechtenstein, participates in the European Union's single market through the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement. The EEA Treaty between the European Union countries and the EFTA countries– transposed into Norwegian law via "EØS-loven"^[102]– describes the procedures for implementing European Union rules in Norway and the other EFTA countries. Norway is a highly integrated member of most sectors of the EU internal market. Some sectors, such as agriculture, oil and fish, are not wholly covered by the EEA Treaty. Norway has also acceded to the Schengen Agreement and several other intergovernmental agreements among the EU member states.

The country is richly endowed with natural resources including petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals. Large reserves of petroleum and natural gas were discovered in the 1960s, which led to a boom in the economy. Norway has obtained one of the highest standards of living in the world in part by having a large amount of natural resources compared to the size of the population. In 2011, 28% of state revenues were generated from the petroleum industry.^[103]

Resources

Agriculture is a significant sector, in spite of the mountainous landscape (Flakstad)

Oil production has been central to the Norwegian economy since the 1970s, with a dominating state ownership (Statfjord oil field)

Stockfish has been exported from Lofoten in Norway for at least 1,000 years

Export revenues from oil and gas have risen to almost 50% of total exports and constitute more than 20% of the GDP.^[104] Norway is the fifth-largest oil exporter and third-largest gas exporter in the world, but it is not a member of OPEC. In 1995 the Norwegian government established the sovereign wealth fund ("Government Pension Fund — Global"), which would be funded with oil revenues, including taxes, dividends, sales revenues and licensing fees. This was intended to reduce overheating in the economy from oil revenues, minimise uncertainty from volatility in oil price, and provide a cushion to compensate for expenses associated with the ageing of the population.

The government controls its petroleum resources through a combination of state ownership in major operators in the oil fields (with approximately 62% ownership in Statoil in 2007) and the fully state-owned Petoro, which has a market value of about twice Statoil, and SDFI. Finally, the government controls licensing of exploration and production of fields. The fund invests in developed financial markets outside Norway. The budgetary rule (Handlingsregelen) is to spend no more than 4% of the fund each year (assumed to be the normal yield from the fund).

In August 2014, the Government Pension Fund controlled assets were valued at approximately US$884 billion (equal to US$173,000 per capita) which is about 174% of Norway's current GDP. It is the largest sovereign wealth fund in the world.^[105] The fund controls about 1.3% of all listed shares in Europe and more than 1% of all the publicly traded shares in the world. The Norwegian Central Bank operates investment offices in London, New York and Shanghai. Guidelines implemented in 2007 allow the fund to invest up to 60% of the capital in shares (maximum of 40% prior), while the rest may be placed in bonds and real-estate. As the stock markets tumbled in September 2008, the fund was able to buy more shares at low prices. In this way, the losses incurred by the market turmoil was recuperated by November 2009.

Other nations with economies based on natural resources, such as Russia, are trying to learn from Norway by establishing similar funds. The investment choices of the Norwegian fund are directed by ethical guidelines; for example, the fund is not allowed to invest in companies that produce parts for nuclear weapons. Norway's highly transparent investment scheme is lauded by the international community. The future size of the fund is closely linked to the price of oil and to developments in international financial markets.

In 2000, the government sold one-third of the state-owned oil company Statoil in an IPO. The next year, the main telecom supplier, Telenor, was listed on Oslo Stock Exchange. The state also owns significant shares of Norway's largest bank, DnB NOR and the airline SAS. Since 2000, economic growth has been rapid, pushing unemployment down to levels not seen since the early 1980s (unemployment in 2007: 1.3%). The international financial crisis has primarily affected the industrial sector, but unemployment has remained low and was at 3.3% (86,000 people) in August 2011. In contrast to Norway, Sweden had substantially higher actual and projected unemployment numbers as a result of the recession. Thousands of mainly young Swedes migrated to Norway for work during these years, which is easy as the labour market and social security systems overlap in the Nordic Countries. In the 1st quarter of 2009, the GNP of Norway surpassed Sweden's for the first time in history, although its population is half the size.

Norway contains significant mineral resources and in 2013 its mineral production was valued at US$1.5 billion (Norwegian Geological Survey data). The most valuable minerals are calcium carbonate (limestone), building stone, nepheline syenite, olivine, iron, titanium, and nickel.^[106]

Norway is also the world's 2nd-largest exporter of fish (in value, after China).^[107] It is the 6th-largest arms exporter in the world.^[108][109] Hydroelectric plants generate roughly 98–99% of Norway's electric power, more than any other country in the world.^[110]

Oil fields

External images

Decreasing oil production

Between 1966 and 2013, Norwegian companies drilled 5085 oil wells, mostly in the North Sea.^[111] 3672 are utviklingsbrønner (regular production);^[111] 1413 are letebrønner (exploration); and 1405 of these have been terminated (avsluttet).^[111]

Oil fields not yet in production phase include: Wisting Central—calculated size in 2013, 65–156 million barrels of oil and 10 to 40 billion cubic feet (0.28 to 1.13 billion cubic metres), (utvinnbar) of gas.^[112] and the Castberg Oil Field (Castberg-feltet^[112])—calculated size 540 million barrels of oil, and 2 to 7 billion cubic feet (57 to 198 million cubic metres) (utvinnbar) of gas.^[113] Both oil fields are located in the Barents Sea.

Transport

Due to the low population density, narrow shape and long coastlines of Norway, its public transport is less developed than in many European countries, especially outside the major cities. The country has longstanding water transport traditions, but the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications has in recent years implemented rail, road and air transport through numerous subsidiaries to develop the country's infrastructure.^[114] Under discussion is development of a new high-speed rail system between the nation's largest cities.^[115][116]

E18 highway in Kristiansand

Norway's main railway network consists of 4,114 kilometres (2,556 mi) of standard gauge lines, of which 242 kilometres (150 mi) is double track and 64 kilometres (40 mi) high-speed rail (210 km/h) while 62% is electrified at 15 kV 16 ²⁄₃ Hz AC. The railways transported 56,827,000 passengers 2,956 million passenger-kilometres and 24,783,000 tonnes of cargo 3,414 million tonne-kilometres.^[117] The entire network is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration.^[118] All domestic passenger trains except the Airport Express Train are operated by Norges Statsbaner (NSB).^[119] Several companies operate freight trains.^[120] Investment in new infrastructure and maintenance is financed through the state budget,^[118] and subsidies are provided for passenger train operations.^[121] NSB operates long-haul trains, including night trains, regional services and four commuter train systems, around Oslo, Trondheim, Bergen and Stavanger.^[122]

Norwegian Air Shuttle and Scandinavian Airlines aircraft at Trondheim Airport, Værnes

Norway has approximately 92,946 kilometres (57,754 mi) of road network, of which 72,033 kilometres (44,759 mi) are paved and 664 kilometres (413 mi) are motorway.^[54] The four tiers of road routes are national, county, municipal and private, with national and primary county roads numbered en route. The most important national routes are part of the European route scheme. The two most prominent are the E6 going north-south through the entire country, and the E39, which follows the West Coast. National and county roads are managed by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration.^[123]

Norway has the world's largest registered stock of plug-in electric vehicles per capita, with Oslo recognised as the EV capital of the world.^{[124][125][126]} In March 2014, Norway became the first country where over 1 in every 100 passenger cars on the roads is a plug-in electric.^[127] The plug-in electric segment market share of new car sales is also the highest in the world.^[128]

Of the 97 airports in Norway,^[54] 52 are public,^[129] and 46 are operated by the state-owned Avinor.^[130] Seven airports have more than one million passengers annually.^[129] 41,089,675 passengers passed through Norwegian airports in 2007, of which 13,397,458 were international.^[129]

The central gateway to Norway by air is Oslo Airport, Gardermoen.^[129] Located about 35 kilometres (22 mi) northeast of Oslo, it is hub for the two major Norwegian airlines: Scandinavian Airlines^[131] and Norwegian Air Shuttle,^[132] and for regional aircraft from Western Norway.^[133] There are departures to most European countries and some intercontinental destinations.^[134][135] A direct high-speed train connects to Oslo Central Station every 10 minutes for a 20 min ride.

Demographics

Ethnic woman in Norwegian local geographic environment.

Demographics in Norway

Historical population
Year	Pop.	±%
1500	140,000	—
1665	440,000	+214.3%
1735	616,109	+40.0%
1801	883,603	+43.4%
1855	1,490,047	+68.6%
1900	2,240,032	+50.3%
1950	3,278,546	+46.4%
2000	4,478,497	+36.6%
2010	4,858,199	+8.5%
2013	5,096,300	+4.9%
2060 (projected)	7,032,687	+38.0%
Source: Statistics Norway.[136][137]

Norway's population was 5,096,300 people in October 2013. Norwegians are an ethnic North Germanic people. Since the late 20th century, Norway has attracted many immigrants from southern and central Europe, the Mideast, Africa and Asia. All of these groups speak many different languages and come from different cultures and religions.

In 2012, an official study showed that 86%^[138] of the total population have at least one parent who was born in Norway. More than 710,000 individuals (14%)^[139] are immigrants and their descendants; there are 117,000 children of immigrants, born in Norway.

Of these 710,000 immigrants and their descendants:

• 323,000 (39%)^[139] have a Western background (Australia, North America, elsewhere in Europe)
• 505,000 (61%)^[139] have a non-Western background (Morocco, Iraq, Somalia, Pakistan, Iran).

In 2013, the Norwegian government said that 14% of the Norwegian population were immigrants or children of two immigrant parents. About 6% of the immigrant population come from EU, North America and Australia, and about 8.1% come from Asia, Africa and Latin America.^[140]

In 2012, of the total 660,000 with immigrant background, 407,262 had Norwegian citizenship (62.2%).^[141]

Immigrants have settled in all Norwegian municipalities. The cities or municipalities with the highest share of immigrants in 2012 were Oslo (32%) and Drammen (27%).^[142] The share in Stavanger was 16%.^[142] According to Reuters, Oslo is the "fastest growing city in Europe because of increased immigration".^[143] In recent years, immigration has accounted for most of Norway's population growth. In 2011 16% of newborn children were of immigrant background.

The Sami people are indigenous to the Far North and have traditionally inhabited central and northern parts of Norway and Sweden, as well as areas in northern Finland and in Russia on the Kola Peninsula. Another national minority are the Kven people, descendants of Finnish-speaking people who migrated to northern Norway from the 18th up to the 20th century. From the 19th century up to the 1970s, the Norwegian government tried to assimilate both the Sami and the Kven, encouraging them to adopt the majority language, culture and religion.^[144] Because of this "Norwegianization process", many families of Sami or Kven ancestry now identify as ethnic Norwegian.^[145]

Migration

Minneapolis–Saint Paul has the largest concentration of ethnic Norwegians outside Norway, at 470,000.

Emigration

Particularly in the 19th century, when economic conditions were difficult in Norway, tens of thousands of people migrated to the United States and Canada, where they could work and buy land in frontier areas. Many went to the Midwest and Pacific Northwest. In 2006, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, almost 4.7 million persons identified as Norwegian Americans, which was larger than the population of ethnic Norwegians in Norway itself. In the 2011 Canadian census, 452,705 Canadian citizens identified as having Norwegian ancestry.^[146]

Immigration

On 1 January 2013, the number of immigrants or children of two immigrants residing in Norway was 710,465, or 14.1% of the total population,^[140] up from 183,000 in 1992. Yearly immigration has increased since 2005. While yearly net immigration in 2001–5 was on average 13,613, it increased to 37,541 between 2006 and 2010, and in 2011 net immigration reached 47,032.^[147] This is mostly because of increased immigration by residents of the EU, in particular from Poland.^[148]

In 2012, the immigrant community (which includes immigrants and children born in Norway of immigrant parents) grew by 55,300, a record high.^[140] Net immigration from abroad reached 47,300 (300 higher than in 2011), while immigration accounted for 72% of Norway's population growth.^[149] 17% of newborn children were born to immigrant parents.^[140] Children of Pakistani, Somali and Vietnamese parents made up the largest groups of all Norwegians born to immigrant parents.^[150]

Pakistani Norwegians are the largest non-European minority group in Norway. Most of their 32,700 members live in and around Oslo. The Iraqi and Somali immigrant populations have increased significantly in recent years. After the enlargement of the EU in 2004, a wave of immigrants has arrived from Central and Northern Europe, particularly Poland, Sweden and Lithuania. The fastest growing immigrant groups in 2011 in absolute numbers were from Poland, Lithuania and Sweden.^[151] The policies of immigration and integration have been the subject of much debate in Norway.

Largest immigrant groups (1st and 2nd generation):^[152]

National background	Population
Poland	91,179
Sweden	38,414
Somalia	35,912
Lithuania	35,546
Pakistan	34,447
Iraq	30,144
Germany	26,683
Vietnam	21,721
Denmark	20,897
Philippines	19,886

Religion

Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim

Heddal stave church, Notodden, the largest stave church in Norway

Bait-un-Nasr mosque on the outskirts of Oslo, the largest mosque in Scandinavia

Most Norwegians are registered at baptism as members of the Church of Norway which until the constitutional amendment of 21 May 2012 was the official state church. The constitution still requires that the reigning monarch must be Lutheran and that the country's values are based on its Christian and humanist heritage. Many remain in the church to participate in the community and practices such as baptism, confirmation, marriage and burial rites which have strong cultural standing in Norway. About 74.3% of Norwegians were members of the Church of Norway on 1 January 2015. In 2014, about 59.3% of all newborns were baptised and about 62.9% of all 15-year-old persons were confirmed in the church.^[153]

In the early 1990s, studies estimated that between 4.7% and 5.3% of Norwegians attended church on a weekly basis.^[154] This figure has dropped to about 2%—the lowest such percentage in Europe—according to data from 2009 and 2010.^[155][156]

In 2010, 10% of the population was religiously unaffiliated, while another 9% (431,000 people), were members of religious communities outside the Church of Norway.^[157] Other Christian denominations total about 4.9%^[157] of the population, the largest of which is the Catholic Church, with 83,000 members, according to 2009 government statistics.^[158] An article in the newspaper Aftenposten in October 2012 noted there were about 115,234 registered Catholics in Norway. The reporter estimated that the total number of people with Catholic background may be 170,000–200,000 or higher.^[159]

Others include Pentecostals (39,600),^[158] the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Norway (19,600),^[158] Methodists (11,000),^[158] Baptists (9,900),^[158] Orthodox (9,900),^[158] Brunstad Christian Church (6,800),^[158] Adventists (5,100),^[158] Assyrians and Chaldeans, and others. The Swedish, Finnish and Icelandic Lutheran congregations in Norway have about 27,500 members in total.^[158] Other Christian-related denominations comprise less than 1% each, including 4,000 members in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and 12,000 Jehovah's Witnesses.^[158]

Among non-Christian religions, Islam is the largest, with 132,135 registered members (2014), and probably fewer than 200,000 in total.^[160] It is practised mainly by Somali, Arab, Bosniak, Albanian and Turkish immigrants, as well as Norwegians of Pakistani descent. Dominated by Sunni Islam, other significant minorities include Shia and Ahmadiyya.

Other religions comprise less than 1% each, including 819 adherents of Judaism.^[161] Indian immigrants introduced Hinduism to Norway, which in 2011 has slightly more than 5,900 adherents, or 1% of non-Lutheran Norwegians.^[161] Sikhism has approximately 3,000 adherents, with most living in Oslo, which has two gurdwaras. Sikhs first came to Norway in the early 1970s. The troubles in Punjab after Operation Blue Star and riots committed against Sikhs in India after the assassination of Indira Gandhi led to an increase in Sikh refugees moving to Norway. Drammen also has a sizeable population of Sikhs; the largest gurdwara in north Europe was built in Lier. There are eleven Buddhist organisations, grouped under the Buddhistforbundet organisation, with slightly over 14,000 members,^[161] which make up 0.2% of the population. The Baha'i religion has slightly more than 1,000 adherents.^[161] Around 1.7% (84,500) of Norwegians belong to the secular Norwegian Humanist Association.

From 2006 to 2011, the fastest-growing religious faith in Norway was Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which grew in membership by 80%; however, its share of the total population remains small, at 0.2%. It is associated with the huge immigration from Eritrea and Ethiopia and to a lesser extent from Central and Eastern European and Middle Eastern countries. Other fast-growing religions were the Roman Catholic Church (78.7%), Hinduism (59.6%), Islam (48.1%), and Buddhism (46.7%).^[162]

As in other Scandinavian countries, the ancient Norse followed a form of native Germanic paganism known as Norse paganism. By the end of the 11th century, when Norway had been Christianized, the indigenous Norse religion and practices were prohibited. Remnants of the native religion and beliefs of Norway survive today in the form of names, referential names of cities and locations, the days of the week, and other parts of everyday language. Modern interest in the old ways has led to a revival of pagan religious practices in the form of Åsatru. The Norwegian Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost formed in 1996; in 2011, the fellowship had about 300 members. Foreningen Forn Sed was formed in 1999 and has been recognised by the Norwegian government as a religious organisation.

The Sami minority retained their shamanistic religion well into the 18th century, when most converted to Christianity under the influence of Dano-Norwegian missionaries. Some retained their ancient religion. Today there is a renewed appreciation for the Sami traditional way of life, which has led to a revival of Noaidevuohta (Sami Shamanism).^[163] Some Norwegian and Sami celebrities are reported to visit shamans for guidance.^[164][165]

Percentage of Norwegians who believe in God

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1985

1995

2005

2015

•   Do not believe in God
•   Do believe in God

Source: Survey from the biannual social-cultural study Norwegian Monitor (Norsk Monitor)^[166] According to the Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 22% of Norwegian citizens responded that "they believe there is a god".^[167] A study conducted three years previously by Gustafsson and Pettersson (2002), similarly found that 72% of Norwegians did not believe in a 'personal God.'^[168]

Largest cities of Norway

Education

The main building of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim

Higher education in Norway is offered by a range of seven universities, five specialised colleges, 25 university colleges as well as a range of private colleges. Education follows the Bologna Process involving Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years) and PhD (3 years) degrees.^[169] Acceptance is offered after finishing upper secondary school with general study competence.

Public education is virtually free, regardless of nationality.^[170] The academic year has two semesters, from August to December and from January to June. The ultimate responsibility for the education lies with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research.

Languages

Distribution of Norwegian dialect groups: North Norwegian (yellow), Trøndelag Norwegian (navy blue), West Norwegian (orange) and East Norwegian (pale blue).

The North Germanic Norwegian language has two official written forms, Bokmål and Nynorsk. Both of them are recognised as official languages, and both are used in public administration, schools, churches, and media. Bokmål is the written language used by a large majority of about 80–85%. An alternative to Bokmål, Riksmål, is slightly more similar to Danish. Around 95% of the population speak Norwegian as their first or native language, although many speak dialects that may differ significantly from the written languages. All Norwegian dialects are mutually intelligible, although listeners with limited exposure to dialects other than their own may struggle to understand certain phrases and pronunciations in some other dialects.

Several Uralic Sami languages are spoken and written throughout the country, especially in the north, by some members of the Sami people. (Estimates suggest that about one third of the Norwegian Sami speak a Sami language.^[171]) Speakers have a right to be educated and to receive communication from the government in their own language in a special forvaltningsområde (administrative area) for Sami languages.^[172][173] The Kven minority historically spoke the Uralic Kven language (considered a separate language in Norway, but generally perceived as a Finnish dialect in Finland). Today the majority of ethnic Kven have little or no knowledge of the language. According to the Kainun institutti, "The typical modern Kven is a Norwegian-speaking Norwegian who knows his genealogy."^[174] As Norway has ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) the Kven language together with Romani and Scandoromani language has become officially recognised minority languages.^[175][176]

Some supporters have also advocated making Norwegian Sign Language an official language of the country.^[177][178]

In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Norwegian language was subject to strong political and cultural controversies. This led to the development of Nynorsk in the 19th century and to the formation of alternative spelling standards in the 20th century.

Norwegian is similar to the other languages in Scandinavia: Swedish and Danish. All three languages are to a degree, mutually intelligible and can be, and commonly are, employed in communication among inhabitants of the Scandinavian countries. As a result of the co-operation within the Nordic Council, inhabitants of all Nordic countries, including Iceland and Finland, have the right to communicate with Norwegian authorities in their own language.

Students who are children of immigrant parents are encouraged to learn the Norwegian language. The Norwegian government offers language instructional courses for immigrants wishing to obtain Norwegian citizenship. With increasing concern about assimilating immigrants, since 1 September 2008, the government has required that an applicant for Norwegian citizenship give evidence of proficiency in either Norwegian or in one of the Sami languages, or give proof of having attended classes in Norwegian for 300 hours, or meet the language requirements for university studies in Norway (that is, by being proficient in one of the Scandinavian languages).

The primary foreign language taught in Norwegian schools is English, considered an international language since the post-WWII era. The majority of the population is fairly fluent in English, especially those born after World War II. German, French and Spanish are also commonly taught as second or, more often, third languages. Russian, Japanese, Italian, Latin, and rarely Chinese (Mandarin) are offered in some schools, mostly in the cities. Traditionally, English, German and French were considered the main foreign languages in Norway. These languages, for instance, were used on Norwegian passports until the 1990s, and university students have a general right to use these languages when submitting their theses.

Culture

Bryggen in Bergen is on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites

The Norwegian farm culture continues to play a role in contemporary Norwegian culture. In the 19th century, it inspired a strong romantic nationalistic movement, which is still visible in the Norwegian language and media. Norwegian culture blossomed with nationalist efforts to achieve an independent identity in the areas of literature, art and music. This continues today in the performing arts and as a result of government support for exhibitions, cultural projects and artwork.^[179]

Traditional Norwegian farmer's costumes, known as folkedrakt, and modern costumes inspired by those costumes, known as bunad, are widely used on special occasions.

Human Rights

Norway has been a progressive country, which has adopted legislation and policies to support women's rights, minority rights, and LGBT rights. As early as 1884, 171 of the leading figures, among them five Prime Ministers for the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, co-founded the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights.^[180] They successfully campaigned for women's right to education, women's suffrage, the right to work and other gender equality policies. From the 1970s, gender equality also came high on the state agenda with the establishment of a public body to promote gender equality, which evolved into the Gender Equality and Anti-Discrimination Ombud. Civil society organisations also continue to play an important role, and the women's rights organisations are today organised in the Norwegian Women's Lobby umbrella organisation.

In 1990 the Norwegian constitution was amended to grant absolute primogeniture to the Norwegian throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession. As it was not retroactive, the current successor to the throne is the eldest son of the King, rather than his eldest child. The Norwegian constitution Article 6 states that "For those born before the year 1990 it shall...be the case that a male shall take precedence over a female."^[181]

The Sami people have for centuries been the subject of discrimination and abuse by the dominant cultures in Scandinavia and Russia, those countries claiming possession of Sami lands.^[182] The Sami people have never been a single community in a single region of Lapland.^[183] Norway has been greatly criticized by the international community for the politics of Norwegianization of and discrimination against the indigenous population of the country.^[184] Nevertheless, Norway was, in 1990, the first country to recognise ILO-convention 169 on indigenous people recommended by the UN.

In regard to LGBT rights, Norway was the first country in the world to enact an anti-discrimination law protecting the rights of gays and lesbians. In 1993 Norway became the second country to legalise civil union partnerships for same-sex couples, and on 1 January 2009 Norway became the sixth country to grant full marriage equality to same-sex couples. As a promoter of human rights, Norway has held the annual Oslo Freedom Forum conference, a gathering described by The Economist as "on its way to becoming a human-rights equivalent of the Davos economic forum."^[185]

Religion

Separation of church and state happened significantly later in Norway than in most of Europe and is not yet complete. In 2012, the Norwegian parliament voted to grant the Church of Norway greater autonomy,^[186] a decision which was confirmed in a constitutional amendment on 21 May 2012. Until 2012 parliamentary officials were required to be members of the Lutheran Church and at least half of all ministers had to be a member of the Christian State Church. As the Church of Norway is the state church, its clergy are state employees, and the central and regional church administrations are part of the state administration. The members of the Royal family are required to be members of the Lutheran church.

Cinema

The Norwegian cinema has received international recognition. The documentary film Kon-Tiki (1950) of the expedition won an American Oscar Academy Award. In 1959, Arne Skouen's Nine Lives was nominated, but failed to win. Another notable film is Flåklypa Grand Prix (English: Pinchcliffe Grand Prix), an animated feature film directed by Ivo Caprino. The film was released in 1975 and is based on characters from Norwegian cartoonist Kjell Aukrust. It is the most widely seen Norwegian film of all time.

Nils Gaup's Pathfinder (1987), the story of the Sami, was nominated for an Oscar. Berit Nesheim's The Other Side of Sunday was nominated for an Oscar in 1997.

Since the 1990s, the film industry has thrived, producing up to 20 feature films each year. Particular successes were Kristin Lavransdatter, based on a novel by a Nobel Prize winner; The Telegraphist and Gurin with the Foxtail. Knut Erik Jensen was among the more successful new directors, together with Erik Skjoldbjærg, who is remembered for Insomnia.^[187]

The country has also been used as filming location for several Hollywood and other international productions, including The Empire Strikes Back (1980), for which the producers used Hardangerjøkulen glacier as a filming location for scenes of the ice planet Hoth. It included a memorable battle in the snow. The films Die Another Day, The Golden Compass, Spies Like Us and Heroes of Telemark, as well as the TV series Lilyhammer and Vikings also had scenes set in Norway.^[188] A short film, The Spirit of Norway was featured at Maelstrom at Norway Pavilion at Epcot located within Walt Disney World Resort in Florida in the United States. The attraction and the film ceased their operations on 5 October 2014.

Music

Edvard Grieg, composer and pianist

The classical music of the romantic composers Edvard Grieg, Rikard Nordraak and Johan Svendsen is internationally known as is the modern music of Arne Nordheim. Norway's classical performers include Leif Ove Andsnes, one of the world's more famous pianists; Truls Mørk, an outstanding cellist; and the great Wagnerian soprano Kirsten Flagstad.

Norwegian black metal has been an influence in world music since the late 20th century. Since the 1990s, Norway's export of black metal, a lo-fi, dark and raw form of heavy metal, has been developed by such bands as Emperor, Darkthrone, Gorgoroth, Mayhem, Burzum, and Immortal. More recently bands such as Enslaved, Kvelertak, Dimmu Borgir and Satyricon have evolved the genre into the present day while still garnering worldwide fans. Controversial events associated with the black metal movement in the early 1990s included several church burnings and two prominent murder cases.

The jazz scene in Norway is thriving. Jan Garbarek, Terje Rypdal, Mari Boine, Arild Andersen, and Bugge Wesseltoft are internationally recognised while Paal Nilssen-Love, Supersilent, Jaga Jazzist and Wibutee are becoming world-class artists of the younger generation.^[189]

Hardingfele, the "Hardanger fiddle", a Norwegian instrument

Norway has a strong folk music tradition which remains popular to this day.^[190] Among the most prominent folk musicians are Hardanger fiddlers Andrea Een, Olav Jørgen Hegge and Annbjørg Lien, and the vocalists Agnes Buen Garnås, Kirsten Bråten Berg and Odd Nordstoga.

Other internationally recognised bands are A-ha, Röyksopp, Ylvis and Maria Mena.^[191] A-ha initially rose to global fame during the mid-1980s. In the 1990s and 2000s the group maintained its popularity domestically, and has remained successful outside Norway, especially in Germany, Switzerland, France and Brazil.

In recent years, various Norwegian songwriters and production teams have contributed to the music of other international artists. The Norwegian production team Stargate has produced songs for Rihanna, Beyoncé, Shakira, Jennifer Lopez and Lionel Richie, among others. Espen Lind has written and produced songs for Beyoncé, Lionel Richie and Leona Lewis, among others. Lene Marlin has written songs for Rihanna and Lovebugs.

Norway enjoys many music festivals throughout the year, all over the country. Norway is the host of one of the world's biggest extreme sport festivals with music, Ekstremsportveko—a festival held annually in Voss. Oslo is the host of many festivals, such as Øyafestivalen and by:Larm. Oslo used to have a summer parade similar to the German Love Parade. In 1992 the city of Oslo wanted to adopt the French music festival Fête de la Musique. Fredrik Carl Størmer established the festival. Even in its first year, "Musikkens Dag" gathered thousands of people and artists in the streets of Oslo. "Musikkens Dag" is now renamed Musikkfest Oslo.

Literature

Knut Hamsun, author

The history of Norwegian literature starts with the pagan Eddaic poems and skaldic verse of the 9th and 10th centuries, with poets such as Bragi Boddason and Eyvindr skáldaspillir. The arrival of Christianity around the year 1000 brought Norway into contact with European mediaeval learning, hagiography and history writing. Merged with native oral tradition and Icelandic influence, this influenced the literature written in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Major works of that period include Historia Norwegiæ, Þiðrekssaga and Konungs skuggsjá.

Little Norwegian literature came out of the period of the Scandinavian Union and the subsequent Dano-Norwegian union (1387–1814), with some notable exceptions such as Petter Dass and Ludvig Holberg. In his play Peer Gynt, Ibsen characterised this period as "Twice two hundred years of darkness/brooded o'er the race of monkeys." The first line of this couplet is frequently quoted. During the union with Denmark, the government imposed using only written Danish, which decreased the writing of Norwegian literature.

Henrik Ibsen

Two major events precipitated a major resurgence in Norwegian literature: in 1811 a Norwegian university was established in Christiania. Secondly, seized by the spirit of revolution following the American and French revolutions, the Norwegians created their first Constitution in 1814. Strong authors were inspired who became recognised first in Scandinavia, and then worldwide; among them were Henrik Wergeland, Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, Jørgen Moe and Camilla Collett.

By the late 19th century, in the Golden Age of Norwegian literature, the so-called "Great Four" emerged: Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Alexander Kielland, and Jonas Lie. Bjørnson's "peasant novels", such as Ein glad gut (A Happy Boy) and Synnøve Solbakken, are typical of the Norwegian romantic nationalism of their day. Kielland's novels and short stories are mostly naturalistic. Although an important contributor to early romantic nationalism, (especially Peer Gynt), Henrik Ibsen is better known for his pioneering realistic dramas such as The Wild Duck and A Doll's House. They caused an uproar because of his candid portrayals of the middle classes, complete with infidelity, unhappy marriages, and corrupt businessmen.

In the 20th century, three Norwegian novelists were awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1903, Knut Hamsun for the book Markens grøde ("Growth of the Soil") in 1920, and Sigrid Undset (known for Kristinlavransdatter) in 1928. Writers such as the following also made important contributions: Dag Solstad, Jon Fosse, Cora Sandel, Olav Duun, Olav H. Hauge, Gunvor Hofmo, Stein Mehren, Kjell Askildsen, Hans Herbjørnsrud, Aksel Sandemose, Bergljot Hobæk Haff, Jostein Gaarder, Erik Fosnes Hansen, Jens Bjørneboe, Kjartan Fløgstad, Lars Saabye Christensen, Johan Borgen, Herbjørg Wassmo, Jan Erik Vold, Rolf Jacobsen, Olaf Bull, Jan Kjærstad, Georg Johannesen, Tarjei Vesaas, Sigurd Hoel, Arnulf Øverland and Johan Falkberget.

Research

Internationally recognised Norwegian scientists include the mathematicians Niels Henrik Abel, Sophus Lie and Atle Selberg, physical chemist Lars Onsager, physicist Ivar Giaever, chemists Odd Hassel, Peter Waage, and Cato Maximilian Guldberg.

In the 20th century, Norwegian academics have been pioneering in many social sciences, including criminology, sociology and peace and conflict studies. Prominent academics include Arne Næss, a philosopher and founder of deep ecology; Johan Galtung, the founder of peace studies; Nils Christie and Thomas Mathiesen, criminologists; Fredrik Barth, a social anthropologist; Vilhelm Aubert, Harriet Holter and Erik Grønseth, sociologists; Tove Stang Dahl, a pioneer of women's law; Stein Rokkan, a political scientist; and economists Ragnar Frisch, Trygve Haavelmo, and Finn E. Kydland.

In 2014, the two Norwegian scientists May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with John O'Keefe. They won the prize for their groundbreaking work identifying the cells that make up a positioning system in the human brain, our "in-built GPS".^[192]

Architecture

Urnes Stave Church has been listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site

With expansive forests, Norway has had a tradition of building in wood. Many of today's most interesting new buildings are made of wood, reflecting the strong appeal that this material continues to hold for Norwegian designers and builders.^[193]

With Norway's conversion to Christianity some 1,000 years ago churches were constructed. Stonework architecture was introduced from Europe for the most important structures, beginning with the construction of Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. In the early Middle Ages, wooden stave churches were constructed throughout Norway. Some of them have survived; they represent Norway's most unusual contribution to architectural history. A fine example, Urnes Stave Church in inner Sognefjord, is on UNESCO's World Heritage List. Another notable example of wooden architecture are buildings at the Bryggen Wharf in Bergen, also on the list for World Cultural Heritage sites, consisting of a row of narrow wooden structures along the quayside.

The 17th-century town of Røros has narrow streets and wooden houses of the period.

In the 17th century, under the Danish monarchy, cities and villages such as Kongsberg and Røros were established. The city had a church built in the Baroque style. Traditional wooden buildings were constructed in Røros which have survived changes since then.

After Norway's union with Denmark was dissolved in 1814, Oslo became the capital. The architect Christian H. Grosch designed the earliest parts of the University of Oslo, the Oslo Stock Exchange, and many other buildings and churches constructed in that early national period.

At the beginning of the 20th century the city of Ålesund was rebuilt in the Art Nouveau style, influenced by styles of France. The 1930s, when functionalism dominated, became a strong period for Norwegian architecture. It is only since the late 20th century that Norwegian architects have achieved international renown. One of the most striking modern buildings in Norway is the Sami Parliament in Kárášjohka, designed by Stein Halvorson and Christian Sundby. Its debating chamber is an abstract timber version of a lavvo, the traditional tent used by the nomadic Sami people.^[194]

Art

Brudeferd i Hardanger by Adolph Tidemand og Hans Gude, 1848

For an extended period, the Norwegian art scene was dominated by artwork from Germany and Holland as well as by the influence of Copenhagen. It was in the 19th century that a truly Norwegian era began, first with portraits, later with even more impressive landscapes. Johan Christian Dahl (1788–1857), originally from the Dresden school, eventually returned to paint the landscapes of western Norway, defining Norwegian painting for the first time."^[195]

Norway's newly found independence from Denmark encouraged painters to develop their Norwegian identity, especially with landscape painting by artists such as Kitty Kielland, a female painter who studied under Hans Gude; Harriet Backer, 1845–1932, another pioneer among female artists, influenced by impressionism. Frits Thaulow, an impressionist, was influenced by the art scene in Paris as was Christian Krohg, a realist painter, famous for his paintings of prostitutes.^[196]

Of particular note is Edvard Munch, a symbolist/expressionist painter who became world famous for The Scream which is said to represent the anxiety of modern man.

Other artists of note include Harald Sohlberg, a neo-romantic painter remembered for his paintings of Røros, and Odd Nerdrum, a figurative painter who maintains that his work is not art but kitsch.

Cuisine

Norway's culinary traditions show the influence of long seafaring and farming traditions with salmon (fresh and cured), herring (pickled or marinated), trout, codfish and other seafood balanced by cheeses, dairy products and breads (predominantly dark/darker).

Lefse is a Norwegian potato flatbread, usually topped with large amounts of butter and sugar, most common around Christmas. Some traditional Norwegian dishes include lutefisk, smalahove, pinnekjøtt, raspeball and fårikål.^[197]

Sports

Biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen from Norway is the most successful Winter Olympian of all time, with 13 medals

Sports are a central part of Norwegian culture, and popular sports include Association football, biathlon, cross-country skiing, ski jumping and, to a lesser degree, ice hockey. Association football is the most popular sport in Norway in terms of active membership, although in a 2015 consensus football ranked far behind biathlon and cross-country skiing in terms of popularity.^[198] Ice hockey is steadily growing, with the men's national hockey team climbing ten places in the IIHF World Ranking from 2004 to 2014.^[199]

The Norwegian national football team has participated three times in the FIFA World Cup (1938, 1994, 1998), and once in the European Championship (2000). The highest FIFA ranking Norway has achieved is 2nd, a position it has held twice, in 1993 and in 1995.^[200]

Chess is also gaining popularity in Norway. Magnus Carlsen is the current world champion.^[201] There are about 10 Grandmasters and 29 International Masters in Norway.

Norway first participated at the Olympic Games in 1900, and has sent athletes to compete in every Games since then, except for the sparsely attended 1904 Games and the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow when they participated in the American-led boycott. Famous Norwegian winter sport athletes are, for instance, biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen and cross country skiers Marit Bjørgen and Bjørn Dæhlie.

Norway has hosted the Games on two occasions:

• 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo
• 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer

See also

• Aristocracy of Norway
• Outline of Norway

Notes

1. The Spitsbergen Treaty (also known as the Svalbard Treaty) of 9 February 1920 recognises Norway's full and absolute sovereignty over the arctic archipelago of Spitsbergen (now called Svalbard).^[10]

References

1. "Population 1 January 2010 and 2011 and changes in 2010, by immigration category and country background. Absolute numbers". Statistics Norway. 1 January 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
2. Statistics Norway. "Immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents (2014)". Statistisk sentralbyrå. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
3. Data is accessible by following "Create tables and diagrams" link on the following site, and then using table 09280 "Area of land and fresh water (km²) (M)" for "The whole country" in year 2013 and summing up entries "Land area" and "Freshwater": "Area of land and fresh water, 1 January 2013". Statistics Norway. 28 May 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2013. Svalbard and Jan Mayen are included.
4. "Population, 1 January 2016, estimated". Statistics Norway. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
5. "Population, 1 January 2015". Statistics Norway. Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
6. "Norway". International Monetary Fund. 2016. Retrieved April 2016.
7. "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income (source: SILC)". Eurostat Data Explorer. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
8. "2015 Human Development Report" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
9. Central Intelligence Agency. "Area". The World Factbook. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
10. National Research Council (U.S.). Polar Research Board (1986). Antarctic treaty system: an assessment. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-03640-5. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
11. "Population". Statistics Norway. 19 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2012.
12. "UPDATE 1-Statistics Norway raises '07 GDP outlook, cuts '08". Reuters. 6 September 2007. Retrieved 8 March 2009.
13. "The World's Richest Countries". forbes.com. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
14. "Country Comparison :: Crude oil – production". CIA – The World Factbook. Retrieved 2016-03-16.
15. "Country Comparison :: Natural gas – production". CIA – The World Factbook. Retrieved 2016-03-16.
16. "Human development indices 2008" (PDF). Human Development Report. hdr.undp.org. 18 December 2008. Retrieved 12 May 2009.
17. "Human Development Index 2009" (PDF). Human Development Report. hdr.undp.org. 5 October 2009. Retrieved 5 October 2009.
18. "Human Development Report 2011" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
19. Norway top country in human well-being. United Press International, 15 March 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
20. "This Is the World's Most Prosperous Nation (Hint: It's Not the U.S.)". TakePart. 3 November 2015. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
21. Sigurðsson and Riisøy: Norsk historie 800–1536. Page 24.
22. "Etymologie de Normand" (in French). Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales. Archived from the original on 2012-01-30.
23. Passarino, G; Cavalleri, G. L.; Lin, A. A.; Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.; Børresen-Dale, A. L.; Underhill, P. A. (2002). "Different genetic components in the Norwegian population revealed by the analysis of mtDNA and Y chromosome polymorphisms". European Journal of Human Genetics 10 (9): 521–9. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200834. PMID 12173029.
24. Ling 2008. Elevated Rock Art. GOTARC Serie B. Gothenburg Archaeological Thesis 49. Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Gothenburg, Goumlteborg, 2008. ISBN 978-91-85245-34-5.
25. Vedel, Bornholms Oldtidsminder og Oldsager, (Copenhagen 1886).
26. "Age of the vikings". loststory. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
27. Larsen, p. 83.
28. Foster, R. F. (2001) The Oxford History of Ireland. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019280202X
29. Larsen, p. 95.
30. Larsen, p. 201.
31. Larsen, p. 192.
32. Oeding, P (1990). "The black death in Norway". Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening : tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke 110 (17): 2204–8. PMID 2197762.
33. "Black Death (pandemic)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
34. Larsen, pp. 202–203.
35. Larsen, p. 195
36. Larsen, p. 197
37. "Finding the family in medieval and early modern Scotland". Elizabeth Ewan, Janay Nugent (2008). Ashgate Publishing. p.153. ISBN 0-7546-6049-4
38. "The savage wars of peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian trap". Alan Macfarlane (1997). p.63. ISBN 0-631-18117-2
39. Treaty of Kiel, 14 January 1814.
40. Nicolson, Harold (1946). The Congress of Vienna; a study in allied unity, 1812–1822. Constable & co. ltd. p. 295. The British Government sought to overcome this reluctance by assisting Russia in blockading the coast of Norway
41. Larsen, p. 572.
42. Larsen, p. 423.
43. Franklin D. Scott, Sweden: the Nation's History (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 1977) p. 380.
44. Larsen, p. 432.
45. Larsen, p. 431.
46. Larsen, p. 412.
47. See "The Civil War in Switzerland" by Frederick Engels contained in Marx & Engels, Collected Works: Volume 6 (International Publishers, New York, 1976) p. 368.
48. Larsen, p. 433.
49. "Marcus Møller Thrane – Norwegian journalist and socialist". Encyclopedia Britannica.
50. Larsen, p. 510.
51. "Norwegian volunteers in the Wehrmacht and SS". Nuav.net. 9 April 1940. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
52. PM to light London tree. Aftenposten. 5 December 2007
53. "Norwegian minister Espen Eide urges UK caution on quitting EU". BBC. 23 December 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
54. Central Intelligence Agency. "Norway". The World Factbook. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
55. "Minifacts about Norway 2009: 2. Geography, climate and environment". Statistics Norway. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
56. "Norwegian Shelf ecosystem". Eoearth.org. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
57. "NOU 2004". Regjeringen.no. Archived from the original on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
58. Norwegian Red List 2010. Artsdatabanken.no
59. "WWF – Norway's forest heritage under threat" Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine.. panda.org. 15 April 2003 Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
60. "25 Reasons Norway Is The Greatest Place On Earth". The Huffington Post. 7 January 2014.
61. Hamashige, Hope. "Best, Worst World Heritage Sites Ranked". National Geographic News. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
62. Wong, Curtis M. (14 December 2010). World's Top Democratic Governments: Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index 2010 (PHOTOS). The Huffington Post. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
63. Sida/Så arbetar vi/EIU_Democracy_Index_Dec2011.pdf Democracy index 2011. Economist Intelligence Unit Retrieved 27 August 2013.
64. Davidson, Kavitha A. (21 March 2013). Democracy Index 2013: Global Democracy At A Standstill, The Economist Intelligence Unit's Annual Report Shows. The Huffington Post. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
65. "The Constitution – Complete text". The Storting's Information Corner. 2011. Archived from the original on 29 August 2011. Retrieved 9 September 2011.
66. "The King's constitutional role". The Royal Court of Norway. Retrieved 24 April 2009.
67. "The Monarchy". Norway.org. 24 June 2010. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012.
68. "The Storting". Norway.org. 10 June 2009. Archived from the original on 26 January 2012.
69. Nordsieck, Wolfram (2011). "Parties and Elections in Europe". parties-and-elections.de. Archived from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2011. Storting, 4-year term, 4% threshold (supplementary seats)
70. "The Government". Norway.org. 10 June 2009. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012.
71. "itemid":%5b"001-81356"%5d} "CASE OF FOLGERØ AND OTHERS v. NORWAY". 29 June 2007. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
72. "Form of Government". Norway.org. 10 September 2009. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012.
73. "Political System of Norway". 123independenceday.com. Retrieved 27 January 2010.
74. "Political System". Norway.org. 18 November 2009. Archived from the original on 12 April 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2010.
75. Bevanger, Lars (10 September 2013). "Norway election: Erna Solberg to form new government". BBC. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
76. "Local Government". Norway.org. 10 June 2009. Archived from the original on 11 June 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2010.
77. Rapp, Ole Magnus (21 September 2015). "Norge utvider Dronning Maud Land helt frem til Sydpolen". Aftenposten (in Norwegian) (Oslo, Norway: Aftenposten). Retrieved 22 September 2015. …formålet med anneksjonen var å legge under seg det landet som til nå ligger herreløst og som ingen andre enn nordmenn har kartlagt og gransket. Norske myndigheter har derfor ikke motsatt seg at noen tolker det norske kravet slik at det går helt opp til og inkluderer polpunktet.
78. "The Judiciary". Norway.org. 10 June 2009. Archived from the original on 26 January 2012.
79. Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2007, Reporters Without Borders.
80. "Global Corruption Barometer 2013-Norway". Transparency International. Archived from the original on 2014-10-21. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
81. "List of Norwegian embassies at the website of the Norwegian ministry of foreign affairs". Web.archive.org. 6 February 2008. Archived from the original on 6 February 2008. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
82. "Refleksjoner fra Brussel – Hospitering ved Sørlandets Europakontor – Vest-Agder Fylkeskommune". Intportal.vaf.no. 4 January 2010. Archived from the original on 6 June 2013.
83. "EU-programmer". Eu-norge.org. 30 June 2009. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
84. "NDF official numbers". NDF. Archived from the original on 12 April 2009. Retrieved 22 April 2009.
85. Gwladys Fouche and Balazs Koranyi (14 June 2013): "Norway becomes first NATO country to draft women into military", Reuters. Retrieved 15 June 2013.
86. "Forsvarsnett: Norwegian forces abroad". mil.no. Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 2 September 2008.
87. United Nations. Human Development Report 2013. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). ISBN 978-92-1-126340-4.
88. Nordhagen, R; Major, E; Tverdal, A; Irgens, L; Graff-Iversen, S (2014). "Folkehelse i Norge 1814 – 2014". Folkehelseinstituttet. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
89. "Deaths – SSB". ssb.no.
90. Baltais, Simon (2010). "Environment And Economy: Can They Co-Exist In The "Smart State"?". Issues 91: 21–24.
91. A Family Affair: Intergenerational Social Mobility across OECD Countries. OECD, 2010. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
92. "OECD Better Life Index". OECD. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
93. "NAV – Foreldrepenger ved fødsel". Nav.no. 2011. Archived from the original on 26 February 2010. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
94. Kari Vartdal Riise; Cecilie Langum Becker (31 August 2012). "Norge i særstilling" (in Norwegian). DN.no. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
95. "Labour force survey – SSB". Ssb.no. 29 January 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
96. "Labour force survey – About the statistics – SSB". Ssb.no. 30 October 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
97. "Statistical Yearbook of Norway 2013, Table 144: National Insurance. Disability pension, by county. 31 December 2012". Ssb.no. 31 December 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
98. "Dette er Norge" (in Norwegian). Statistics Norway. Retrieved 2 January 2013.
99. Bureau of Labor Statistics. "International Comparisons of GDP per Capita and per Hour, 1960–2010" (PDF). Division of International Labor Comparisons. Retrieved 2016-03-16.
100. "Hourly Compensation Costs, U.S. Dollars and U.S. = 100." United States Department of Labor: Bureau of Labor Statistics, 21 December 2011. Web. 18 September 2012.
101. Central Intelligence Agency. "Country Comparison: Distribution of Family Income – GINI Index". The World Factbook. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
102. "EØS-loven — EØSl. Lov om gjennomføring i norsk rett av hoveddelen i avtale om Det europeiske økonomiske samarbeidsområde (EØS) m.v. (EØS-loven)". Lovdata.no. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
103. "Norway," U.S. Department of State
104. "Secondary Industries". This is Norway. Statistics Norway. 15 March 2009. p. 40. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
105. Stanley Reed (24 June 2014). "Norway’s Sovereign Wealth Fund Ramps Up Investment Plans". New York Times. Retrieved 27 April 2015. The fund, the world's largest sovereign wealth fund ...
106. "Mineral Resources in Norway in 2013" (PDF).
107. "FAO Globefish global trends 2006". Retrieved 8 March 2009.
108. "Mener Norge bør satse på våpen når oljen tar slutt – nyheter". Dagbladet.no. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
109. "Mener Norge bør satse på våpen når oljen tar slutt – VG Nett om Stoltenberg-regjeringen". Vg.no. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
110. "Binge and purge". The Economist. 22 January 2009. Retrieved 30 January 2009. 98–99% of Norway's electricity comes from hydroelectric plants.
111. Ole Mathismoen (5 August 2013) Aftenposten p. 5
112. Lindeberg, Anne. "Her er Norges nye oljeprovins". Dn.no. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
113. "Gass- og oljefunn nord for Snøhvitfeltet i Barentshavet – 7220/8-1". Npd.no. 1 April 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
114. Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communication, 2003: 3
115. "Majority in Favor of High-Speed Trains". Theforeigner.no. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
116. "The vast majority said yes (high-speed trains), thanks to lyntog". Google. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
117. Norwegian National Rail Administration, 2008: 4
118. Norwegian National Rail Administration. "About". Archived from the original on 16 December 2007. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
119. Norwegian National Rail Administration, 2008: 13
120. Norwegian National Rail Administration, 2008: 16
121. Norwegian Ministry of Transport. "Kollektivtransport" (in Norwegian). Retrieved 15 July 2008.
122. Norges Statsbaner. "Train facts". Archived from the original on 12 June 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
123. Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications, 2003: 15
124. "Electric cars take off in Norway". The Independent. Agence France-Presse. 15 May 2011. Archived from the original on 17 May 2011. Retrieved 9 October 2011.
125. European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (AVERE) (3 September 2012). "Norwegian Parliament extends electric car initiatives until 2018". AVERE. Retrieved 10 April 2013.
126. Hannisdahl, Ole Henrik (9 January 2012). "Eventyrlig elbilsalg i 2011" [Adventurous electric vehicle sales in 2011] (in Norwegian). Grønn bil. Retrieved 14 January 2012. See table "Elbilsalg i 2011 fordelt på måned og merke" (Electric vehicle sales in 2011, by month and brand) to see monthly sales for 2011.
127. "Elbilsalget i mars slo alle rekorder" [Electric vehicle sales in March broke all records] (in Norwegian). Grønn bil. 2 April 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
128. Cobb, Jeff (16 January 2014). "Top 6 Plug-In Vehicle Adopting Countries". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
129. Avinor (2008). "2007 Passasjerer" (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 28 December 2010. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
130. Avinor. "About Avinor". Archived from the original on 31 March 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
131. Scandinavian Airlines System. "Rutekart". Retrieved 15 July 2008.
132. Norwegian Air Shuttle. "Route Map". Archived from the original on 14 July 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
133. Widerøe. "Våre destinasjoner". Archived from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
134. Oslo Lufthavn. "Car". Archived from the original on 1 June 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
135. Oslo Lufthavn. "International scheduled routes from Oslo". Archived from the original on 14 July 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
136. "Tabell 0 Hele landet. Folkemengde 1. januar og endringer i året. 1951" (in Norwegian). Statistics Norway. Retrieved 27 January 2007.
137. "Population 1 January. Registered 2010. Projected 2011–2060 in fourteen variants. 1 000". Statistics Norway. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 27 January 2010.
138. Persons with immigrant background by immigration category, country background and gender. 1 January 2012 (Corrected 30 April 2012). ssb.no
139. Questions about immigrant-related statistics (20 June 2013). "Key figures Immigration and immigrants – SSB". Ssb.no. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
140. 12 prosent av befolkningen er innvandrere Statistics Norway (Norwegian) retrieved 26 April 2013
141. "Three categories of immigration background, country of birth and citizenship by country background and sex. 1 January 2012". Statistics Norway. 26 April 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2012. Archived 7 August 2011.
142. Innvandrere og norskfødte med innvandrerforeldre, 25 April 2013 Statistics Norway. Retrieved 30 December 2013
143. Hare, Sophie. "Factbox – facts about Norway", Reuters. 22 July 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
144. Eivind Bråstad Jensen. 1991. Fra fornorskningspolitikk mot kulturelt mangfold. Nordkalott-Forlaget.
145. I. Bjørklund, T. Brantenberg, H. Eidheim, J.A. Kalstad and D. Storm. 2002. Australian Indigenous Law Reporter (AILR) 1 7(1)
146. Statistics Canada. "2011 National Household Survey: Data tables". Retrieved 11 February 2014.
147. "Netto innvandring, etter land. 1966–2011" (in Norwegian). Statistics Norway. Archived from the original on 20 November 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2012.
148. Ladegaard, Isac (7 May 2012). "Polish workers get stuck in stereotype". Science Nordic.
149. "Population and quarterly changes, Q4 2012". Statistics Norway. 21 February 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
150. "Immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents, 1 January 2012". Statistics Norway. 26 April 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
151. "Population 1 January 2011 and 2012 and changes in 2011, by immigration category and country background". Statistics Norway. 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
152. "Immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents, 1 January 2013". Statistics Norway. 25 April 2013. Retrieved 28 May 2013. See Table 3 "Population by immigrant category and country background", sum of columns "Immigrants" and "Norwegian-born to immigrant parents".
153. "Flere til gudstjeneste" (in Norwegian). Statistics Norway. Retrieved 6 May 2015.
154. "The People In The Church". dawnnorge.no. Archived from the original on 15 August 2007.
155. "KOSTRA (Municipality-State-Reporting): Church". Statistics Norway. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
156. "Church of Norway. Church services and participants, by diocese. 2005–2009 (Corrected 28 June 2010)". Statistics Norway. 28 June 2010. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
157. "More members in religious and philosophical communities". Statistics Norway. Retrieved 8 March 2009.
158. "Members of Christian communities outside the Church of Norway". Statistics Norway. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
159. Andreas Sletteholm: "Nå er det flere katolikker enn muslimer i Norge", Aftenposten, 3 December 2012
160. "Church of Norway and other religious and philosophical communities". Statistics Norway. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
161. "Members of religious and life-stance communities outside the Church of Norway, by religion/life stance". Statistics Norway. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
162. "Religious communities and life stance communities". Statistics Norway. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
163. "Shamanism Approved as a Religion in Norway". Tnp.no. 15 March 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
164. "Geir Kvarme gikk til sjaman for å få balanse". Kjendis.no. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
165. AV: ellen kongsnes. "Samisk sjaman skapte oljefeber". Aftenbladet.no. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
166. Ottar Hellevik Trends from Norwegian Monitor
167. "Special Eurobarometer, biotechnology, page 204" (PDF). October 2010.
168. Gustafsson, Goran and Thorleif Pettersson. Folkkyrk och religios pluraism ?den nordiska religiosa modellen, Stockholm, Sweden: Verbum Forlag
169. "Norway – Implementation of the elements of the Bologna Process" (PDF). Retrieved 30 May 2010.
170. "Tuition fees". Studyinnorway.no. 27 August 2008. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
171. "Nordens språk med røtter og føtter–Samiske språk". Eplads.norden.org. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
172. "Lov om Sametinget og andre samiske rettsforhold (sameloven) – Lovdata". lovdata.no.
173. "NOU 1995: 18 – Ny lovgivning om opplæring". Kunnskapsdepartementet. Archived from the original on 27 October 2014.
174. "Kvener – Kainun institutti – Kvensk institutt". Kvenskinstitutt.no. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
175. "Minoritetsspråkpakten". Fornyings-, administrasjons- og kirkedepartementet.
176. "St.meld. nr. 35 (2007–2008) – Mål og meining". Kulturdepartementet. Archived from the original on 27 October 2014.
177. "St.meld. nr. 35. Mål og meining : Ein heilskapleg norsk språkpolitikk". Kultur- og kirkedepartementet. 27 June 2008.
178. "Tegnspråk blir offisielt språk". NRK. 26 June 2008.
179. ""Norway's Culture", ''Encarta''". Webcitation.org. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
180. Aslaug Moksnes. Likestilling eller særstilling? Norsk kvinnesaksforening 1884–1913 (p. 35), Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, 1984, ISBN 82-05-15356-6
181. "The Constitution – Complete text". Stortinget.no. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
182. Reetta Toivanen (ed. Norbert Götz; et al. (2003). Civil Society in the Baltic Sea Region. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 205–216. ISBN 0-7546-3317-9.
183. The Sami of Northern Europe 'However, as with many indigenous peoples, the Sami in Norway have suffered a past dominated by discrimination, particularly regarding religion and language.' United Nations Regional Information Centre for Western Europe. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
184. "Journal of Indigenous People Rights. Issue No. 3/2005" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
185. "Human rights: A crowded field". The Economist. 27 May 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
186. Fraser, Sean (15 May 2012). "Norway abolishes state-sponsored Church of Norway". Digital Journal. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
187. "A brief history of Norwegian film". Norway Official Website. Retrieved 8 February 2010.
188. "Norwegian Film Commission". Norwegianfilm.com. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
189. "Culture". Studyinnorway.no. 26 March 2007. Archived from the original on 19 February 2012.
190. Folk Music from Norway. The official site of Norway
191. "Ylvis". Retrieved 26 December 2014.
192. "The Nobel Prize in Physiologi or Medicine 2014". The Official Website of the Nobel Prize. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
193. "The evolution of Norwegian architecture". The official site of Norway. Archived from the original on 6 June 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
194. Burgher, Leslie. "Norwegian Architecture". Leslie Burgher website. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
195. Haverkamp, Frode. Hans Fredrik Gude: From National Romanticism to Realism in Landscape (in Norwegian).
196. "Norwegian Artists". Artcyclopedia.com. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
197. "Countries and Their Cultures, Norway". Everyculture.com. 4 September 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
198. "Knock-out fra Northug & co.". Dagbladet. 22 June 2015. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
199. "2015 Men's World Ranking". IIHF. 22 June 2015. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
200. "FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking". FIFA. 22 June 2015. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
201. "Carlsen er verdensmester: – Jeg er lykkelig og lettet". NRK. 22 June 2015. Retrieved 22 June 2015.

Bibliography

• Larsen, Karen (1948). A History of Norway. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

External links

• Norway.no, Norway's official portal
• Norway at DMOZ
• Statistics Norway
• State of the Environment Norway
• Norway entry at The World Factbook
• Norway entry at Encyclopædia Britannica
• Norway from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Norway profile from the BBC News
• Norway.info, official foreign portal of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs
• Norway travel guide from Wikivoyage
• Wikimedia Atlas of Norway
• Geographic data related to Norway at OpenStreetMap
• Official facts about Norway
• VisitNorway.com, official travel guide to Norway.
• vifanord – a digital library that provides scientific information on the Nordic and Baltic countries as well as the Baltic region as a whole.
• National Anthem of Norway on YouTube
• Key Development Forecasts for Norway from International Futures
• World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Norway

Coordinates: 61°N 8°E / 61°N 8°E