England

England ⁱ/ˈɪŋɡlənd/ is a country that is part of the United Kingdom.^[3]^[4]^[5] It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. The Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south. The country covers much of the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain, which lies in the North Atlantic; and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight.

The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period, but takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world.^[6] The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law – the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the world – developed in England, and the country's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations.^[7] The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation.^[8]

England's terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north (for example, the mountainous Lake District, Pennines, and Yorkshire Dales) and in the south west (for example, Dartmoor and the Cotswolds). The capital of England is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom and the European Union.^{[nb 1]} England's population of over 53 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom, largely concentrated around London, the South East, and conurbations in the Midlands, the North West, the North East and Yorkshire, which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.^[9]

The Kingdom of England – which after 1284 included Wales – ceased being a separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union put into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year, resulting in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain.^[10]^[11] In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Toponymy

History

Main article: History of England

Prehistory and antiquity

Main article: Prehistoric Britain

Sun shining through row of upright standing stones with other stones horizontally on the top.

Stonehenge, a Neolithic monument

The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago.^[26] Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years.^[27]^[28] After the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths, bison and woolly rhinoceros remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula.^[29] The sea level was lower than now and Britain was connected by land bridge to Ireland and Eurasia.^[30] As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later.

The Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores.^[31] It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people made bronze, and later iron from iron ores. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields), as well as the production of more effective weapons.^[32]

Painting of woman, with outstretched arm, in white dress with red cloak and helmet, with other human figures to her right and below her to the left.

Boudica led an uprising against the Roman Empire

During the Iron Age, Celtic culture, deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, arrived from Central Europe. Brythonic was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to Ptolemy's Geographia there were around 20 tribes in the area. Earlier divisions are unknown because the Britons were not literate. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from the Trinovantes.

The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius, subsequently conquering much of Britain, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province.^[33] The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus. Later, an uprising led by Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at the Battle of Watling Street.^[34] This era saw a Greco-Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law, Roman architecture, aqueducts, sewers, many agricultural items and silk.^[35]^[36]^[37] In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (now York), where Constantine was subsequently proclaimed emperor.^[38]

There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According to Bede, missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain.^[39] By 410, during the Decline of the Roman Empire, Britain was left exposed by the end of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars.^[40] Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished: Patrick (5th-century Ireland) and in the 6th century Brendan (Clonfert), Comgall (Bangor), David (Wales), Aiden (Lindisfarne) and Columba (Iona). This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology. Local "congregations" were centred in the monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman-dominated church.^[41]

Middle Ages

Main article: England in the Middle Ages

Studded and decorated metallic mask of human face.

Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial helmet from the Kingdom of East Anglia, found at Sutton Hoo

Roman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Angles, Saxons and Jutes who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province and began to settle, initially in the eastern part of the country.^[40] Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon, but subsequently resumed, over-running the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under Brythonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as a Dark Age. The nature and progression of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain is consequently subject to considerable disagreement. Roman-dominated Christianity had in general disappeared from the conquered territories, but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597 onwards.^[42] Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the Council of Whitby (664), which was ostensibly about haircuts and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice (Lehane).

During the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent and Sussex. Over the following centuries this process of political consolidation continued.^[43] The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence.^[44] In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by the Danes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex under Alfred the Great was left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the Danelaw. This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished under Æthelstan in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts by Eadred in 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-lived North Sea Empire that also included Denmark and Norway. However the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042.

King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, 1415.

King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, fought on Saint Crispin's Day and concluded with an English victory against a larger French army in the Hundred Years' War.

A dispute over the succession to Edward led to the Norman conquest of England in 1066, accomplished by an army led by Duke William of Normandy.^[45] The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.^[46] This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language.^[47]

Subsequently the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II, adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine.^[48] They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry V.^[48] The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing of the Magna Carta, an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen. Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century^[49] and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by the Pope.

During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the House of Valois both claimed to be legitimate claimants to the House of Capet and with it France; the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years' War.^[50] The Black Death epidemic hit England; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England's inhabitants.^[51]^[52] From 1453 to 1487 civil war occurred between two branches of the royal family—the Yorkists and Lancastrians—known as the Wars of the Roses.^[53] Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors, a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed.^[54]

Early Modern

Painting of large bearded man with fur trimmed cloak, wearing a hat.

King Henry VIII became Supreme Head of the Church of England

During the Tudor period, the Renaissance reached England through Italian courtiers, who reintroduced artistic, educational and scholarly debate from classical antiquity.^[55] England began to develop naval skills, and exploration to the West intensified.^[56]^[57]

Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England. In contrast with much of European Protestantism, the roots of the split were more political than theological.^{[nb 2]} He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the 1535–1542 acts. There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I. The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism.

Competing with Spain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke. The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony, after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship.^[59] With the East India Company, England also competed with the Dutch and French in the East. In 1588, during the Elizabethan period, an English fleet under Francis Drake defeated an invading Spanish Armada. The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when the King of Scots, James VI, a kingdom which was a longtime rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I — creating a personal union.^[60]^[61] He styled himself King of Great Britain, although this had no basis in English law.^[62] Under the auspices of King James VI and I the Authorised King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It has not only been ranked with Shakespeare's works as the greatest masterpiece of literature in the English language but also was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years, until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century.

Painting of seated male figure, with long black hair wearing a white cape and breeches.

The English Restoration restored the monarchy under King Charles II and peace after the English Civil War.

Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the English Civil War was fought between the supporters of Parliament and those of King Charles I, known colloquially as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms, involving Scotland and Ireland. The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by the Commonwealth. Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653; a period of personal rule followed.^[63] After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his son Richard as Lord Protector, Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called the Restoration. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689. Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament.^[64] Also since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch.^[65]^[66] With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged.

In 1666 the Great Fire of London gutted the City of London but it was rebuilt shortly afterwards^[67] with many significant buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren. In Parliament two factions had emerged — the Tories and Whigs. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II, some of them, along with the Whigs, deposed him in the Revolution of 1688 and invited Dutch prince William of Orange to become William III. Some English people, especially in the north, were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons. After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed,^[68] the two countries joined in political union, to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.^[60] To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate.^[69]

Late Modern and contemporary

A stone factory stands against a vivid blue sky, its reflection mirrored in the waters below.

Saltaire, West Yorkshire, is a model mill town from the Industrial Revolution, and a World Heritage Site.

Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire. Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution, a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development.^[70] The opening of Northwest England's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the canal age in Britain.^[71]^[72] In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway—the Stockton and Darlington Railway—opened to the public.^[71]

Cotton mills in Manchester, the world's "first industrial city", circa 1820.^[73]

During the Industrial Revolution, many workers moved from England's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Manchester and Birmingham, dubbed "Warehouse City" and "Workshop of the World" respectively.^[74]^[75] England maintained relative stability throughout the French Revolution; William Pitt the Younger was British Prime Minister for the reign of George III. During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon planned to invade from the south-east. However this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British at sea by Lord Nelson and on land by the Duke of Wellington. The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people, shared with the Scots and Welsh.^[76]

The Cenotaph, Whitehall, is a memorial to members of the British Armed Forces who died during the two World Wars.

London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era, and trade within the British Empire—as well as the standing of the British military and navy—was prestigious.^[77] Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage.^[78] Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies.^{[nb 3]} Two decades later, in World War II, the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies. At the end of the Phoney War, Winston Churchill became the wartime Prime Minister. Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during the Blitz. Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation, and there was a speeding up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle's development of the jet engine led to wider air travel.^[80] Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948. The UK's NHS provided publicly funded health care to all UK permanent residents free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. Combined, these changes prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid-20th century.^[81]^[82]

Since the 20th century there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of the British Isles, but also from the Commonwealth, particularly the Indian subcontinent.^[83] Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the service industry.^[84] As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a common market initiative called the European Economic Community which became the European Union. Since the late 20th century the administration of the United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.^[85] England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom.^[86] Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism.^[87]^[88] There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum.^[89]

Governance

Politics

Main article: Politics of England

Photograph of rectangular floodlight building, reflected in water. The building has multiple towers including one at each end. The tower on the right includes an illuminated clock face.

The Palace of Westminster, the seat of the Parliament of the United Kingdom

As part of the United Kingdom, the basic political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system.^[90] There has not been a Government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union, joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.^[68] Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England. Today England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments.^[91] In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster, there are 532 Members of Parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total.^[92]

In the United Kingdom general election, 2015, the Conservative Party won an absolute majority in the 650 contested seats with 10 seats more than all other parties combined (the Speaker of the House not being counted as a Conservative).^[93] The Conservative party, headed by the prime minister David Cameron, won 98 more seats than the Labour Party, whose leader Ed Miliband subsequently stood down.^[94] The Scottish National Party (Scotland only) won 56 out of 59 Scottish seats in the House of Commons replacing the Liberal Democrats as the third largest party overall in the UK.^[95]

Lines of men wearing large black bearskin hats and red tunics.

Changing of the Queen's Guard at the royal residence, Buckingham Palace

As the United Kingdom is a member of the European Union, there are elections held regionally in England to decide who is sent as Members of the European Parliament. The 2014 European Parliament election saw the regions of England elect the following MEPs: 22 UK Independence Party (UKIP), 17 Conservatives, 17 Labour, 3 Greens, and one Liberal Democrat.

Since devolution, in which other countries of the United Kingdom—Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland—each have their own devolved parliament or assemblies for local issues, there has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the North East in a referendum, this has not been carried out.^[89]

One major issue is the West Lothian question, in which MPs from Scotland and Wales are able to vote on legislation affecting only England, while English MPs have no equivalent right to legislate on devolved matters.^[96] This when placed in the context of England being the only country of the United Kingdom not to have free cancer treatment, prescriptions, residential care for the elderly and free top-up university fees,^[97] has led to a steady rise in English nationalism.^[98] Some have suggested the creation of a devolved English parliament,^[99] while others have proposed simply limiting voting on legislation which only affects England to English MPs.^[100]

Law

Main article: English law

The Royal Courts of Justice

The English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of common law^[101] legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries^[102] and the United States (except Louisiana). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of the Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union, as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent—stare decisis—to the facts before them.^[103]

The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown Court for criminal cases.^[104] The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales. It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords.^[105] A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which must follow its directions.^[106]

Crime increased between 1981 and 1995, but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006.^[107] The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it the highest incarceration rate in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000.^[108] Her Majesty's Prison Service, reporting to the Ministry of Justice, manages most prisons, housing over 85,000 convicts.^[109]

Regions, counties, and districts

Main article: Subdivisions of England

Not shown: City of London

The subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government. The highest tier of local government were the nine regions of England: North East, North West, Yorkshire and the Humber, East Midlands, West Midlands, East, South East, South West, and London. These were created in 1994 as Government Offices, used by the British Government to deliver a wide range of policies and programmes regionally, but there are no elected bodies at this level, except in London, and in 2011 the regional Government offices were abolished.^[110] The same boundaries remain in use for electing Members of the European Parliament on a regional basis.

After devolution began to take place in other parts of the United Kingdom it was planned that referendums for the regions of England would take place for their own elected regional assemblies as a counterweight. London accepted in 1998: the London Assembly was created two years later. However, when the proposal was rejected by the northern England devolution referendums, 2004 in the North East, further referendums were cancelled.^[89] The regional assemblies outside London were abolished in 2010, and their functions transferred to respective Regional Development Agencies and a new system of local authority leaders' boards.^[111]

Below the regional level, all of England is divided into 48 ceremonial counties.^[112] These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference and have developed gradually since the Middle Ages, with some established as recently as 1974.^[113] Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff; these posts are used to represent the British monarch locally.^[112] Outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly, England is also divided into 83 metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties; these correspond to areas used for the purposes of local government^[114] and may consist of a single district or be divided into several.

There are six metropolitan counties based on the most heavily urbanised areas, which do not have county councils.^[114] In these areas the principal authorities are the councils of the subdivisions, the metropolitan boroughs. Elsewhere, 27 non-metropolitan "shire" counties have a county council and are divided into districts, each with a district council. They are typically, though not always, found in more rural areas. The remaining non-metropolitan counties are of a single district and usually correspond to large towns or sparsely populated counties; they are known as unitary authorities. Greater London has a different system for local government, with 32 London boroughs, plus the City of London covering a small area at the core governed by the City of London Corporation.^[115] At the most localised level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with councils; they do not exist in Greater London.^[116]

Geography

Main article: Geography of England

Landscape and rivers

Skiddaw massif, seen from Walla Crag in the Lake District

Geographically England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly. It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom—to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. England is closer to the European continent than any other part of mainland Britain. It is separated from France by a 21-mile (34 km)^[117] sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone.^[118] England also has shores on the Irish Sea, North Sea and Atlantic Ocean.

The ports of London, Liverpool, and Newcastle lie on the tidal rivers Thames, Mersey and Tyne respectively. At 220 miles (350 km), the Severn is the longest river flowing through England.^[119] It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore tidal waves, which can reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height.^[120] However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is 215 miles (346 km) in length.^[121] There are many lakes in England; the largest is Windermere, within the aptly named Lake District.^[122]

Green hills with trees in the foreground.

Terrain of Dartmoor, Devon

In geological terms, the Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago.^[123] Their geological composition includes, among others, sandstone and limestone, and also coal. There are karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire. The Pennine landscape is high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain three national parks, the Yorkshire Dales, Northumberland, and the Peak District. The highest point in England, at 978 metres (3,209 ft), is Scafell Pike in Cumbria.^[122] Straddling the border between England and Scotland are the Cheviot Hills.

The English Lowlands are to the south of the Pennines, consisting of green rolling hills, including the Cotswold Hills, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downs—where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover. The granite Southwest Peninsula in the West Country includes upland moorland, such as Dartmoor and Exmoor, and enjoys a mild climate; both are national parks.^[124]

Climate

Main article: Climate of England

England has a temperate maritime climate: it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 °C (32 °F) in winter and not much higher than 32 °C (90 °F) in summer.^[125] The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the English coast, while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October.^[125] Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year.

Important influences on the climate of England are its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, its northern latitude and the warming of the sea by the Gulf Stream.^[125] Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of the Lake District receive more rain than anywhere else in the country.^[125] Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale in Kent,^[126] while the lowest was −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond, Shropshire.^[127]

Major conurbations

Rank	Urban area	Population	Major localities
1	Greater London Urban Area	9,787,426	Greater London, divided into the City of London and 32 London boroughs including Croydon, Barnet, Ealing, Bromley
2	Greater Manchester Urban Area	2,553,379	Manchester, Salford, Bolton, Stockport, Oldham
3	West Midlands Urban Area	2,440,986	Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Dudley, Walsall, Aldridge
4	West Yorkshire Urban Area	1,777,934	Leeds, Bradford, Huddersfield, Wakefield, Halifax
5	Liverpool Urban Area	864,122	Liverpool, St Helens, Bootle, Huyton-with-Roby
6	South Hampshire	855,569	Southampton, Portsmouth, Eastleigh, Gosport, Fareham, Havant, Horndean
7	Tyneside	774,891	Newcastle, North Shields, South Shields, Gateshead, Jarrow
8	Nottingham Urban Area	729,977	Nottingham, Beeston and Stapleford, Carlton, Long Eaton
9	Sheffield Urban Area	685,368	Sheffield, Rotherham, Rawmarsh, Killamarsh
10	Bristol Urban Area	617,280	Bristol, Kingswood, Mangotsfield, Stoke Gifford

Economy

Main article: Economy of England

The City of London is the financial capital of the world^[130]^[131]

England's economy is one of the largest in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £22,907.^[132] Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure.^[133] The official currency in England is the pound sterling, whose ISO 4217 code is GBP. Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe – as of 2014 the basic rate of personal tax is 20% on taxable income up to £31,865 above the personal tax-free allowance (normally £10,000), and 40% on any additional earnings above that amount.^[134]

The economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy,^[132] which has the 18th highest GDP PPP per capita in the world. England is a leader in the chemical^[135] and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre—100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations are based in London.^[136] London is the largest financial centre in Europe, and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world.^[137]^[138]

The Bentley Mulsanne. Bentley is a well-known English car company.

The Bank of England, founded in 1694 by Scottish banker William Paterson, is the United Kingdom's central bank. Originally established as private banker to the Government of England, since 1946 it has been a state-owned institution.^[139] The Bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, although not in other parts of the United Kingdom. The government has devolved responsibility to the Bank's Monetary Policy Committee for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.^[140]

England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy.^[84] Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals, cars (although many English marques are now foreign-owned, such as Land Rover, Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley), crude oil and petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages.^[141]

Most of the UK's £25 billion^[142] aerospace industry is primarily based in England. The wings for the Airbus A380 and the Airbus A350 XWB are designed and manufactured at Airbus UK's world-leading facility in Broughton. GKN Aerospace – an expert in metallic and composite aerostructures is involved in almost every civil and military fixed and rotary wing aircraft in production is based in Redditch.^[143]

BAE Systems makes large sections of the Typhoon Eurofighter at its sub-assembly plant in Salmesbury and assembles the aircraft for the RAF at its Warton plant, near Preston. It is also a principal subcontractor on the F35 Joint Strike Fighter – the world's largest single defence project – for which it designs and manufactures a range of components including the aft fuselage, vertical and horizontal tail and wing tips and fuel system. As well as this it manufactures the Hawk, the world's most successful jet training aircraft.^[143]

Rolls-Royce PLC is the world's second-largest aero-engine manufacturer. Its engines power more than 30 types of commercial aircraft, and it has more 30,000 engines currently in service across both the civil and defence sectors. With a workforce of over 12,000 people, Derby has the largest concentration of Rolls-Royce employees in the UK. Rolls-Royce also produces low-emission power systems for ships; makes critical equipment and safety systems for the nuclear industry and powers offshore platforms and major pipelines for the oil and gas industry.^[143]^[144]

Much of the UK's space industry is centred on EADS Astrium, based in Stevenage and Portsmouth. The company builds the buses – the underlying structure onto which the payload and propulsion systems are built – for most of the European Space Agency's spacecraft, as well as commercial satellites. The world leader in compact satellite systems, Surrey Satellites, is also part of Astrium.^[143] Reaction Engines Limited, the company planning to build Skylon, a single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane using their SABRE rocket engine, a combined-cycle, air-breathing rocket propulsion system is based Culham.

Agriculture is intensive and highly mechanised, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force.^[145] Two thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the other to arable crops.^[146]

Science and technology

Main articles: List of English inventions and discoveries and Royal Society

Torso of man with long white hair and dark coloured jacket

Sir Isaac Newton is one of the most influential figures in the history of science

Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, J. J. Thomson, Charles Babbage, Charles Darwin, Stephen Hawking, Christopher Wren, Alan Turing, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Tim Berners-Lee, Paul Dirac, Andrew Wiles and Richard Dawkins. Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a metric system was invented by John Wilkins, the first secretary of the Royal Society, in 1668.^[147]

As the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.^[148] Thomas Newcomen's steam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution.^[149] The Father of Railways, George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, Matthew Boulton (business partner of James Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.^[150] The physician Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine is said to have "saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."^[151]^[152]^[153]

Inventions and discoveries of the English include: the jet engine, the first industrial spinning machine, the first computer and the first modern computer, the World Wide Web along with HTML, the first successful human blood transfusion, the motorised vacuum cleaner,^[154] the lawn mower, the seat belt, the hovercraft, the electric motor, steam engines, and theories such as the Darwinian theory of evolution and atomic theory. Newton developed the ideas of universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics, and calculus, and Robert Hooke his eponymously named law of elasticity. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the thermosiphon, tarmac, the rubber band, the mousetrap, "cat's eye" road marker, joint development of the light bulb, steam locomotives, the modern seed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering.^[155]

Transport

Main article: Transport in England

London Heathrow Airport has more international passenger traffic than any other airport in the world.^[156]

The Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. There are many motorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as the A1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle^[157] (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is the M6, from Rugby through the North West up to the Anglo-Scottish border, a distance of 232 miles (373 km).^[157] Other major routes include: the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.^[157]

Bus transport across the country is widespread; major companies include National Express, Arriva and Go-Ahead Group. The red double-decker buses in London have become a symbol of England. There is a rapid rail network in two English cities: the London Underground; and the Tyne and Wear Metro in Newcastle, Gateshead and Sunderland.^[158] There are several tram networks, such as the Blackpool tramway, Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram and Midland Metro, and the Tramlink system centred on Croydon in South London.^[158]

Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825.^[159] Much of Britain's 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively, although a high proportion of railway lines were closed in the second half of the 20th century. There are plans to reopen lines such as the Varsity Line between Oxford and Cambridge. These lines are mostly standard gauge (single, double or quadruple track) though there are also a few narrow gauge lines. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994.

England has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport is London Heathrow, which is the world's busiest airport measured by number of international passengers.^[160] Other large airports include Manchester Airport, London Stansted Airport, Luton Airport and Birmingham Airport.^[156] By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including to Ireland, the Netherlands and Belgium.^[161] There are around 4,400 miles (7,100 km) of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by the Canal and River Trust,^[161] however water transport is very limited. The Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury in the Thames Estuary, one of the United Kingdom's three major ports.^[161]

Healthcare

Main article: Healthcare in England

Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham, an NHS hospital

The National Health Service (NHS) is the publicly funded healthcare system in England responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report, prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge.^[162] The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including National Insurance payments,^[163] and it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care.^[164]

The government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the Secretary of State for Health, who sits in the British Cabinet. Most of the expenditure of the Department of Health is spent on the NHS—£98.6 billion was spent in 2008–2009.^[165] In recent years the private sector has been increasingly used to provide more NHS services despite opposition by doctors and trade unions.^[166] The average life expectancy of people in England is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom.^[167]

Demography

Main article: Demography of England

Population

Main article: English people

Map of England with regions shaded in different shades of blue.

The metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties, colour-coded to show population

Population of England and Wales by administrative areas. Their size is approximately in proportion to their population. The darker colour the bigger is the real area.

With over 53 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total.^[9]^[168] England taken as a unit and measured against international states has the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world.^[169] With a density of 407 people per square kilometre, it would be the second most densely populated country in the European Union after Malta.^[170]^[171]

The English people are a British people.^[172] Some genetic evidence suggests that 75–95% descend in the paternal line from prehistoric settlers who originally came from the Iberian Peninsula, as well as a 5% contribution from Angles and Saxons, and a significant Scandinavian (Viking) element.^[173]^[174]^[175] However, other geneticists place the Germanic estimate up to half.^[176]^[177]^[178] Over time, various cultures have been influential: Prehistoric, Brythonic,^[179] Roman, Anglo-Saxon,^[180] Viking (North Germanic),^[181] Gaelic cultures, as well as a large influence from Normans. There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.^{[nb 4]} Since the late 1990s, many English people have migrated to Spain.^[186]^[187]

Pie chart with main body in blue and multiple smaller segments in other colours.

2009 estimates of ethnic groups in England^[188]

In 1086, when the Domesday Book was compiled, England had a population of two million. About ten per cent lived in urban areas.^[189] By 1801 the population had grown to 8.3 million, and by 1901 had grown to 30.5 million.^[190] Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England, it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom.^[172] There has been significant Irish migration.^[191] The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 87.50%, including Germans^[192] and Poles.^[172]

Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in particular, 6% of people living in England have family origins in the Indian subcontinent, mostly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.^[172]^[192] 2.90% of the population are black, from both the Caribbean and countries in Africa itself, especially former British colonies.^[172]^[192] There is a significant number of Chinese and British Chinese.^[172]^[192] In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families,^[193] and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%.^[194] About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration.^[195] Debate over immigration is politically prominent;^[196] according to a 2009 Home Office poll, 80% of people want to cap it.^[197] The ONS has projected that the population will grow by six million between 2004 and 2029.^[198]

Language

Further information: English language in England

Language	Native speakers^[199]
English	46,936,780
Cornish	554
Polish	529,173
Punjabi	271,580
Urdu	266,330
Bengali	216,196
Gujarati	212,217
Arabic	152,490
French	145,026
Other	2,267,016
Population	51,005,610

English-speaking world

Majority native language

Official, but not majority language

Note: English is also an official language of the EU^[200]

As its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue spoken by 98% of the population.^[201] It is an Indo-European language in the Anglo-Frisian branch of the Germanic family.^[202] After the Norman conquest, the Old English language was displaced and confined to the lower social classes as Norman French and Latin were used by the aristocracy.

By the 15th century, English was back in fashion among all classes, though much changed; the Middle English form showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the English Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins.^[203] Modern English has extended this custom of flexibility, when it comes to incorporating words from different languages. Thanks in large part to the British Empire, the English language is the world's unofficial lingua franca.^[204]

English language learning and teaching is an important economic activity, and includes language schooling, tourism spending, and publishing. There is no legislation mandating an official language for England,^[205] but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinct regional accents, and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country.

As well as English, England has two other indigenous languages, Cornish in Cornwall and Welsh in areas close to the Welsh border. Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived,^[206]^[207]^[208] and is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.^[209] It is spoken by 0.1% of people in Cornwall,^[210] and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools.^[211]^[212]

When the modern border between Wales and England was established by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, many Welsh-speaking communities found themselves on the English side of the border. Welsh was spoken in Archenfield in Herefordshire into the nineteenth century.^[213] Welsh was spoken by natives of parts of western Shropshire until the middle of the twentieth century if not later.^[214]

State schools teach students a second language, usually French, German or Spanish.^[215] Due to immigration, it was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a foreign language at home,^[193] the most common being Punjabi and Urdu.^[216] However, following the 2011 census data released by the Office for National Statistics, figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English.^[217]

Religion

Large yellow stone ornate building with buttresses and square central tower.

Canterbury Cathedral, seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury

Main article: Religion in England

Further information: History of Christianity in England

According to the 2011 census, 59.4% of the population is Christian, 24.7% non-religious, 5% is Muslim while 3.7% of the population belongs to other religions and 7.2 did not give an answer.^[218] Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England, as it has been since the Early Middle Ages, although it was first introduced much earlier in Gaelic and Roman times. This Celtic Church was gradually joined to the Catholic hierarchy following the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by St Augustine. The established church of England is Church of England,^[219] which left communion with Rome in the 1530s when Henry VIII was unable to annul his divorce to the aunt of the king of Spain. The religion regards itself as both Catholic and Reformed.

Saint George is the patron saint of England

There are High Church and Low Church traditions, and some Anglicans regard themselves as Anglo-Catholics, following the Tractarian movement. The monarch of the United Kingdom is the Supreme Governor of the church, which has around 26 million baptised members (of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers). It forms part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as its symbolic worldwide head.^[220] Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral, and Salisbury Cathedral.

The 2nd-largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English).^[221] There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV; while saints Bede and Anselm are regarded as Doctors of the Church.

Westminster Abbey is a notable example of English Gothic architecture. The coronation of the British monarch traditionally takes place at the Abbey

A form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley.^[222] It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and amongst tin miners in Cornwall.^[223] There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, Unitarians and The Salvation Army.^[224]

The patron saint of England is Saint George; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England, as well as in the Union Flag as part of a combination.^[225]^[225] There are many other English and associated saints; some of the best-known are: Cuthbert, Edmund, Alban, Wilfrid, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket. There are non-Christian religions practised. Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070.^[226] They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, only to be allowed back in 1656.^[226]

Especially since the 1950s, religions from the former British colonies have grown in numbers, due to immigration. Islam is the most common of these, now accounting for around 5% of the population in England.^[227] Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number, adding up to 2.8% combined,^[227] introduced from India and South East Asia.^[227]

A small minority of the population practice ancient Pagan religions. Neopaganism in the United Kingdom is primarily represented by Wicca and Witchcraft religions, Druidry, and Heathenry. According to the 2011 UK Census, there are roughly 53,172 people who identify as Pagan in England,^{[nb 5]} and 3,448 in Wales,^{[nb 6]} including 11,026 Wiccans in England and 740 in Wales.^{[nb 7]}

Education

Main article: Education in England

The frontage of Warwick School, one of the oldest independent schools in England

The Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education.^[229] State-run and state-funded schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren.^[230] Of these, a minority are faith schools (primarily Church of England or Roman Catholic schools). Children who are between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. After finishing compulsory education, students take GCSE examinations. Students may then opt to continue into further education for two years. Further education colleges (particularly sixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site. A-level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university.

Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, in some areas there are selective intake grammar schools, to which entrance is subject to passing the eleven plus exam. Around 7.2% of English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources.^[231] Standards in state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education, and in private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate.^[232]

Large yellow stone building with an arched window and two towers at the end nearest the photographer. In the foreground is grass and water with people in a punt.

King's College, University of Cambridge

Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which are public institutions. The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England.^[233] Students are generally entitled to student loans to cover the cost of tuition fees and living costs.^{[nb 8]} The first degree offered to undergraduates is the Bachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or towards a doctorate, which takes three or more years.

King's College London's Maughan Library, the biggest university library in the UK

England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world; Cambridge University, Imperial College London, Oxford University, University College London and King's College London are all ranked in the global top 20 in the 2014–2015 QS World University Rankings.^[234] The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.^[235] The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times.^[236] Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (1st), upper second class (2:1), lower second class (2:2), third (3rd), and unclassified.

The King's School, Canterbury and King's School, Rochester are the oldest schools in the English-speaking world.^[237] Many of England's most well-known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton, St Paul's School, Harrow School and Rugby School are fee-paying institutions.^[238]

Culture

Main article: Culture of England

Further information: English Renaissance

Architecture

White stone building with tower topped with a dome. In the foreground are trees and a red rectangular vertical box with windows.

A red telephone box in front of St Paul's Cathedral, one of the most important buildings of the English Baroque period

Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period, amongst the best-known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg.^[239] With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts.^[240] It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England.^[240] Another well-preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.^[240]

Early Medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of Hiberno—Saxon monasticism,^[241]^[242] to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various Castles in England were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from invasion. Some of the best-known medieval castles are the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle.^[243]

A castle of square plan surrounded by a water-filled moat. It has round corner towers and a forbidding appearance.

Bodiam Castle is a 14th-century moated castle near Robertsbridge in East Sussex

Throughout the Plantagenet era an English Gothic architecture flourished—the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster are prime examples.^[243] Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th-century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity, synthesised with Christianity appeared—the English Baroque style, architect Christopher Wren was particularly championed.^[244]

Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launched—in addition to this around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.^{[nb 9]}

Folklore

Main article: English folklore

Drawing depicting Robin Hood, wearing Lincoln green clothing, and Sir Guy of Gisbourne, wearing brown furs, in a forest preparing to shoot with bows and arrows.

Robin Hood illustrated in 1912 wearing Lincoln green

English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, for instance the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith,^[246] others date from after the Norman invasion; Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham being, perhaps, the best known.^[247]

During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore—the Arthurian myth.^[248]^[249]^[250] These were derived from Anglo-Norman, Welsh and French sources,^[249] featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain).^{[nb 10]} Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales and pseudo-histories make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.

Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries; Lady Godiva for instance was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry, Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion, Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch.^[252] On 5 November people make bonfires, set off fireworks and eat toffee apples in commemoration of the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred on Guy Fawkes. The chivalrous bandit, such as Dick Turpin, is a recurring character, while Blackbeard is the archetypal pirate. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as Morris dancing, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill.^[253] There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and Beefeaters.^[254]

Cuisine

Main article: English cuisine

Fish and chips is a very popular dish in England

Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.^[255] During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by the food critics with some good ratings in Restaurant's best restaurant in the world charts.^[256] An early book of English recipes is the Forme of Cury from the royal court of Richard II.^[257]

An apple pie on a red table cloth, with green apples next to it.

Apple pie has been consumed in England since the Middle Ages

Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding, and gravy.^[258] Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast (generally consisting of bacon, sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, mushrooms, and eggs).^[259] Various meat pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (the latter usually eaten cold)^[258] and the Cornish Pasty.

Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well known stew in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar, Red Leicester and Wensleydale together with Blue Stilton. Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies; spotted dick – all generally served with custard; and, more recently, sticky toffee pudding. Sweet pastries include scones (either plain or containing dried fruit) served with jam and/or cream, dried fruit loaves, Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as a wide range of sweet or spiced biscuits. Common drinks include tea, whose popularity was increased by Catherine of Braganza,^[260] whilst frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wines, ciders and English beers, such as bitter, mild, stout, and brown ale.^[261]

Visual arts

Main article: English art

Literature, poetry and philosophy

Main article: English literature

A man dressed in grey with a beard, holding a rosary, depicted next to a coat of arms.

Geoffrey Chaucer was an English author, poet and philosopher, best remembered for his unfinished frame narrative The Canterbury Tales.

Early authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin.^[268] The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem Beowulf and the secular prose of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,^[269] along with Christian writings such as Judith, Cædmon's Hymn and hagiographies.^[268] Following the Norman conquest Latin continued amongst the educated classes, as well as an Anglo-Norman literature.

Middle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, along with Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland. William of Ockham and Roger Bacon, who were Franciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages. Julian of Norwich, who wrote Revelations of Divine Love, was a prominent Christian mystic. With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared. William Shakespeare, whose works include Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, and A Midsummer Night's Dream, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.^[270]

Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age.^[271] Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract.^[271] Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings. Marvell was the best-known poet of the Commonwealth,^[272] while John Milton authored Paradise Lost during the Restoration.

This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, this earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, this other Eden, demi-paradise; this fortress, built by nature for herself. This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.

William Shakespeare.^[273]

Some of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Thomas Paine, Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism.^[274] The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in romanticism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures.^[275]

In response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition; William Cobbett, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder of guild socialism, Arthur Penty, and cooperative movement advocate G. D. H. Cole are somewhat related.^[276] Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, H. G. Wells and Lewis Carroll.^[277] Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell, D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, Enid Blyton, Aldous Huxley, Agatha Christie, Terry Pratchett, J. R. R. Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling.^[278]

Performing arts

Further information: Folk music of England

Cinema

Museums, libraries, and galleries

Further information: List of museums in England

The Natural History Museum in London

English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty holds a contrasting role. 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England.^[302] Some of the best-known of these are: Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Studley Royal Park and various others.^[303]

There are many museums in England, but perhaps the most notable is London's British Museum. Its collection of more than seven million objects^[304] is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world,^[305] sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books.^[306] The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.^[307] The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize.^[308]

Sports

Main article: Sport in England

The World Cup Sculpture featuring England captain Bobby Moore with the 1966 FIFA World Cup trophy, on the shoulders of Geoff Hurst and Ray Wilson, together with Martin Peters

England has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England include association football,^[309] cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, boxing, badminton, squash,^[310] rounders,^[311] hockey, snooker, billiards, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing, greyhound racing and fox hunting. It has helped the development of golf, sailing and Formula One.

Football is the most popular of these sports. The England national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, played Scotland in the first ever international football match in 1872.^[312] Referred to as the "home of football" by FIFA, England hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and won the tournament by defeating West Germany 4–2 in the final, with Geoff Hurst scoring a hat-trick.^[313] With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the final is the most watched television event ever in the UK.^[314]

The interior of an empty stadium as viewed from its upper tier of seating. The seats are a vivid red and the pitch is a vivid green. The pale grey sky is visible through an opening in the ceiling above the pitch.

Wembley Stadium, home of the England football team, has a 90,000 capacity. It is the biggest stadium in the UK

At club level England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, due to Sheffield F.C. founded in 1857 being the world's oldest club.^[309] The Football Association is the oldest governing body in the sport, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley.^[315] The FA Cup and The Football League were the first cup and league competitions respectively. In the modern day the Premier League is the world's most-watched football league,^[316] most lucrative,^[317] and amongst the elite.^[318]

As is the case throughout the UK, football in England is renowned for the intense rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition of football chants, such as, "You're Not Singing Any More" (or its variant "We Can See You Sneaking Out!"), sung by jubilant fans towards the opposition fans who have gone silent (or left early).^[319]^[320] The European Cup (now UEFA Champions League) has been won by Liverpool, Manchester United, Nottingham Forest, Aston Villa and Chelsea, while Arsenal, and Leeds United have reached the final.^[321] Other English clubs have enjoyed success, Tottenham Hotspur, Ipswich Town, Chelsea, and Liverpool have won the UEFA Cup, renamed UEFA Europa League.

Men in cricket whites play upon a green grass cricket field amidst a stadium.

England on the way to victory against Australia in the 2009 Ashes series at Lord's Cricket Ground

Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald.^[322] The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia, contested since 1882. The climax of the 2005 Ashes was viewed by 7.4 million as it was available on terrestrial television.^[323] England has hosted four Cricket World Cups (1975, 1979, 1983, 1999) and will host the 2019 edition, but never won the tournament, reaching the final 3 times. However they have hosted the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009, winning this format in 2010 beating rivals Australia in the final. In the domestic competition, the County Championship, Yorkshire are by far the most successful club having won the competition 31 times.^[324] Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket".^[325]

William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games. In 1994, then President of the IOC, Juan Antonio Samaranch, laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, "I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games".^[326] London has hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times, in 1908, 1948, and 2012. England competes in the Commonwealth Games, held every four years. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England.

White men in grey suits, pale blue shirts and red ties celebrate upon the top floor of an open-top bus. On man holds a golden trophy in the air with one hand.

The England rugby union team during their victory parade after winning the 2003 Rugby World Cup

Rugby union originated in Rugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century.^[327] The England rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup, the country was one of the host nations of the competition in the 1991 Rugby World Cup and is set to host the 2015 Rugby World Cup.^[328] The top level of club participation is the English Premiership. Leicester Tigers, London Wasps, Bath Rugby and Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wide Heineken Cup.

Rugby league was born in Huddersfield in 1895. Since 2008, the England national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, which won three World Cups but is now retired. Club sides play in Super League, the present-day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria.^[329] All eleven English clubs in Super League are based in the north of England. Some of the most successful clubs include Wigan Warriors, St Helens, Leeds Rhinos and Huddersfield Giants; the former three have all won the World Club Challenge previously.

Golf has been prominent in England; due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland, the home of Golf.^[330] There are both professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: the PGA and the European Tour. England has produced grand slam winners: Cyril Walker, Tony Jacklin, Nick Faldo, and Justin Rose in the men's and Laura Davies, Alison Nicholas, and Karen Stupples in the women's. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major, is The Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy.^[331] Nick Faldo is the most successful Ryder Cup player ever, having won the most points (25) of any player on either the European or U.S. teams.^[332]

Centre Court at Wimbledon. First played in 1877, the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world.^[333]

Tennis was created in Birmingham, England in the late 19th century, and the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious.^[334]^[335] Fred Perry was the last Englishman to win Wimbledon in 1936. He was the first player to win all four Grand Slam singles titles^[336] and helped lead the Great Britain team to victory over France in the Davis Cup in 1933. English women who have won Wimbledon include: Ann Haydon Jones won in 1969 and Virginia Wade in 1977.

In boxing, under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies. World champions include Bob Fitzsimmons, Ted "Kid" Lewis, Randolph Turpin, Nigel Benn, Chris Eubank, Frank Bruno, Lennox Lewis, Ricky Hatton, Naseem Hamed, Amir Khan, Carl Froch, and David Haye.^[337] In women's boxing, Nicola Adams became the world's first woman to win an Olympic boxing Gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics.

Former Formula One world champion Nigel Mansell driving at Silverstone in 1990. The circuit hosted the first ever Formula One race in 1950

The 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created Formula One World Championship.^[338] Since then, England has produced some of the greatest drivers in the sport, including; John Surtees, Stirling Moss, Graham Hill (only driver to have won the Triple Crown), Nigel Mansell (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time), Damon Hill, Lewis Hamilton and Jenson Button.^[339] It has manufactured some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations for its engineering knowledge and organisation. McLaren Automotive, Williams F1, Team Lotus, Honda, Brawn GP, Benetton, Renault, and Red Bull Racing are all, or have been, located in the south of England. England also has a rich heritage in Grand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycle road racing, and produced several World Champions across all the various class of motorcycle: Mike Hailwood, John Surtees, Phil Read, Geoff Duke, and Barry Sheene.

Darts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, darts is a traditional pub game. The sport is governed by the World Darts Federation, one of its member organisations is the BDO, which annually stages the Lakeside World Professional Championship, the other being the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC), which runs its own world championship at Alexandra Palace in London. Phil Taylor is widely regarded as the best darts player of all time, having won 187 professional tournaments, and a record 16 World Championships.^[340]^[341] Trina Gulliver is the nine-time Women's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation. Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is Snooker, and England has produced several world champions, including Steve Davis and Ronnie O'Sullivan.

The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive sailing; founding and winning some of the worlds most famous and respected international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including the match race, a regatta, and the America's Cup. England has produced some of the world's greatest sailors, including, Francis Chichester, Herbert Hasler, John Ridgway, Robin Knox-Johnston, Ellen MacArthur, Mike Golding, Paul Goodison, and the most successful Olympic sailor ever Ben Ainslie.^[342]

National symbols

Main article: National symbols of England

A red shield tapers to its bottom end; on it are three stylised golden lions with blue claws.

The Royal Arms of England

The St George's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century. Originally the flag was used by the maritime Republic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards, so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean. A red cross was a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with Saint George, along with countries and cities, which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner.^[343] Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.^[225]

The Tudor rose, England's national floral emblem

There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on the Royal Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.^[344] It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians—cadet branches of the Plantagenets who went to war over control of the nation. It is also known as the Rose of England.^[345] The oak tree is a symbol of England, representing strength and endurance. The Royal Oak symbol and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II from the grasp of the parliamentarians after his father's execution: he hid in an oak tree to avoid detection before safely reaching exile.

The Royal Arms of England, a national coat of arms featuring three lions, originated with its adoption by Richard the Lionheart in 1198. It is blazoned as gules, three lions passant guardant or and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England; it is similar to the traditional arms of Normandy. England does not have an official designated national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has God Save the Queen. However, the following are often considered unofficial English national anthems: Jerusalem, Land of Hope and Glory (used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games),^[346] and I Vow to Thee, My Country. England's National Day is 23 April which is St George's Day: St George is the patron saint of England.^[347]

Notes

↑ According to the European Statistical Agency, London is the largest Larger Urban Zone in the EU, a measure of metropolitan area which comprises a city's urban core as well as its surrounding commuting zone. London's municipal population is also the largest in the EU.
↑ As Roger Scruton explains, "The Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the 'Reformation Parliament' of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not make substantial change in doctrine until later."^[58]
↑ Figure of 550,000 military deaths is for England and Wales^[79]
↑ For instance, in 1980 around 50 million Americans claimed English ancestry.^[182] In Canada there are around 6.5 million Canadians who claim English ancestry.^[183] Around 70% of Australians in 1999 denoted their origins as Anglo-Celtic, a category which includes all peoples from Great Britain and Ireland.^[184] Chileans of English descent are somewhat of an anomaly in that Chile itself was never part of the British Empire, but today there are around 420,000 people of English origins living there.^[185]
↑ People who strictly identified as "Pagan". Other Pagan paths, such as Wicca or Druidism, have not been included in this number.^[228]
↑ People who strictly identified as "Pagan". Other Pagan paths, such as Wicca or Druidism, have not been included in this number.^[228]
↑ People who strictly identified as "Wiccan". Other Pagan paths, such as Druidism, and general "Pagan" have not been included in this number.^[228]
↑ Students attending English universities now have to pay tuition fees towards the cost of their education, as do English students who choose to attend university in Scotland. Scottish students attending Scottish universities have their fees paid by the devolved Scottish Parliament.^[97]
↑ While people such as Norman Foster and Richard Rogers represent the modernist movement, Prince Charles since the 1980s has voiced strong views against it in favour of traditional architecture and put his ideas into practice at his Poundbury development in Dorset.^[245] Architects like Raymond Erith, Francis Johnson and Quinlan Terry continued to practice in the classical style.
↑ These tales may have come to prominence, at least in part, as an attempt by the Norman ruling elite to legitimise their rule of the British Isles, finding Anglo-Saxon history ill-suited to the task during an era when members of the deposed House of Wessex, especially Edgar the Ætheling and his nephews of the Scottish House of Dunkeld, were still active in the isles.^[249]^[251] Also Michael Wood explains; "Over the centuries the figure of Arthur became a symbol of British history—a way of explaining the matter of Britain, the relationship between the Saxons and the Celts, and a way of exorcising ghosts and healing the wounds of the past."^[248]

References

↑ "2011 Census: KS201EW Ethnic group: local authorities in England and Wales". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
↑ Region and Country Profiles, Key Statistics and Profiles, October 2013, ONS. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
↑ Office for National Statistics. "The Countries of the UK". statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
↑ "Countries within a country". number-10.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
↑ "Changes in the list of subdivision names and code elements (Page 11)" (PDF). International Organization for Standardization. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
↑ "England – Culture". britainusa.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
↑ "Country profile: United Kingdom". BBC News (news.bbc.co.uk). 26 October 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
↑ "Industrial Revolution". Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
1 2 2011 Census – Population and household estimates for England and Wales, March 2011. Accessed 31 May 2013.
↑ William E. Burns, A Brief History of Great Britain, p. xxi
↑ Acts of Union 1707 parliament.uk. Retrieved 27 January 2011
↑ "England". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
↑ Ripley 1869, p. 570.
↑ Molyneaux 2015, pp. 6–7.
↑ "England". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
↑ "Germania". Tacitus. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Angle". Oxford English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Crystal 2004, pp. 26–27
↑ Forbes, John (1848). The Principles of Gaelic Grammar. Edinburgh: Oliver, Boyd and Tweeddale.
1 2 Massey 2007, p. 440.
↑ Greek "... ἐν τούτῳ γε μὴν νῆσοι μέγιστοι τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι δύο, Βρεττανικαὶ λεγόμεναι, Ἀλβίων καὶ Ἰέρνη, ...", transliteration "... en toutoi ge men nesoi megistoi tynchanousin ousai dyo, Brettanikai legomenai, Albion kai Ierne, ...", translation "... There are two very large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne; ..."; Aristotle or Pseudo-Aristotle. "On the Cosmos, 393b12". On Sophistical Refutations. On Coming-to-be and Passing Away. On the Cosmos. Translated by Forster, E. S.; Furley, D. J. William Heinemann LTD, Harvard University Press. pp. 360–361. at the Open Library Project.DjVu
↑ Room 2006, p. 23.
↑ Major 2004, p. 84.
↑ Avienus' Ora Maritima, verses 111–112, i.e. eamque late gens Hiernorum colit; propinqua rursus insula Albionum patet.
↑ Foster 1988, p. 9.
↑ "500,000 BC – Boxgrove". Current Archaeology. Current Publishing. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
↑ "Palaeolithic Archaeology Teaching Resource Box" (PDF). Palaeolithic Rivers of South-West Britain Project(2006). Retrieved 20 December 2010.
↑ "Chalk east". A Geo East Project. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
↑ Oppenheimer 2006, p. 173.
↑ "Tertiary Rivers: Tectonic and structural background". University of Cambridge. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
↑ "Function and significance of Bell Beaker pottery according to data from residue analyses". Retrieved 21 December 2010.
↑ Reid, Struan (1994). Inventions and Trade. P.8. ISBN 978-0-921921-30-1. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
↑ Burke, Jason (2 December 2000). "Dig uncovers Boudicca's brutal streak". The Observer (London). Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Cornelius Tacitus, The Annals". Alfred John Church, William Jackson Brudribh, Ed. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
↑ Bedoyere, Guy. "Architecture in Roman Britain". Heritage Key. Archived from the original on 7 August 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
↑ Philip, Robert (1860). Thr History of Progress in Great Britain, Volume 2. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
↑ Bob Rees, Paul Shute, Nigel Kelly (9 January 2003). Medicine through time. Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-435-30841-4. Retrieved 24 December 2010.
↑ Rankov 1994, p. 16.
↑ Wright 2008, p. 143.
1 2 James, Edward. "Overview: Anglo-Saxons, 410 to 800". BBC. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
↑ See Early Christian Christianity, Brendan Lehane, Constable, London: John Murray Ltd., 1968
↑ "The Christian Tradition". PicturesofEngland.com. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Kirby 2000, p. 4
↑ Lyon 1960, p. 23.
↑ "Overview: The Normans, 1066–1154". BBC. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
↑ Crouch 2006, pp. 2–4
↑ "Norman invasion word impact study". BBC News. 20 February 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
1 2 Bartlett 1999, p. 124.
↑ "Edward I (r. 1272–1307)". Royal.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 24 June 2008. Retrieved 21 September 2009.
↑ Fowler 1967, p. 208.
↑ Ziegler 2003, p. 230.
↑ Goldberg 1996, p. 4.
↑ Crofton 2007, p. 111.
↑ "Richard III (r. 1483–1485)". Royal.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 10 July 2008. Retrieved 21 September 2009.
↑ Hay, Denys (1988). Renaissance essays. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-907628-96-5. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
↑ "Royal Navy History, Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy". Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2010.
↑ Smith, Goldwin. England Under the Tudors. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-60620-939-4. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
↑ Scruton 1982, p. 470.
↑ Ordahl, Karen (25 February 2007). Roanak:the abandoned colony. Rowman & Littlefield publishers Inc. ISBN 978-0-7425-5263-0. Retrieved 24 December 2010.
1 2 Colley 1992, p. 12.
↑ "Making the Act of Union". Parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 9 June 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Hay, Denys. "The term "Great Britain" in the Middle Ages" (PDF). ads.ahds.ac.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 19 February 2009.
↑ "Oliver Cromwell (English statesman)". Encyclopædia Britannica. britannica.com. 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
↑ Philip J. Adler, Randall L. Pouwels (27 November 2007). World Civilization. p. 340. ISBN 978-0-495-50262-3. Retrieved 24 December 2010.
↑ "Democracy Live: Black Rod". BBC. Retrieved 6 August 2008
↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Black Rod". Encyclopædia Britannica 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
↑ "London's Burning: The Great Fire". BBC News. Retrieved 25 September 2009.
1 2 "The first Parliament of Great Britain". Parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Gallagher 2006, p. 14.
↑ Hudson, Pat. "The Workshop of the World". BBC. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
1 2 Office for National Statistics 2000, p. 5
↑ McNeil & Nevell 2000, p. 4.
↑ "Manchester – the first industrial city". Entry on Sciencemuseum website. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
↑ McNeil & Nevell 2000, p. 9.
↑ Birmingham City Council. "Heritage". visitbirmingham.com. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2009.
↑ Colley 1992, p. 1.
↑ Haggard, Robert F. (2001). The persistence of Victorian liberalism:The Politics of Social Reform in Britain, 1870–1900. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-313-31305-9. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
↑ Crawford, Elizabeth. "Women: From Abolition to the Vote". BBC. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
↑ Cox 1970, p. 180
↑ Golley, John (10 August 1996). "Obituaries: Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle". The Independent (London). Retrieved 2 December 2010.
↑ Clark 1973, p. 1.
↑ Wilson & Game 2002, p. 55.
↑ Gallagher 2006, pp. 10–11.
1 2 Reitan 2003, p. 50.
↑ Keating, Michael (1 January 1998). "Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom". Publius: the Journal of Federalism 28 (1): 217. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
↑ "The coming of the Tudors and the Act of Union". BBC Wales. BBC News. 2009. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
↑ Kenny, English & Hayton 2008, p. 3.
↑ Ward 2004, p. 180.
1 2 3 Sherman, Jill; Andrew Norfolk (5 November 2004). "Prescott's dream in tatters as North East rejects assembly". The Times (London). Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "The British Parliamentary System". BBC News. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
↑ Cabinet Office (26 March 2009). "Devolution in the United Kingdom". cabinetoffice.gov.uk. Retrieved 16 August 2009.
↑ "Lists of MPs". Parliament.uk. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
↑ "It is 1992 all over again for David Cameron's Conservatives". Financial Times. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
↑ "Ed Miliband to step down as Labour leader". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
↑ "Election results: Conservatives win majority". BBC News. 1 July 2015.
↑ "West Lothian question". BBC News. 31 October 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 "Are Scottish people better off?". MSN Money. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "English nationalism 'threat to UK'". BBC News. 9 January 2000. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Davidson, Lorraine (3 June 2008). "Gordon Brown pressed on English parliament". The Times (London). Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Grice, Andrew (1 July 2008). "English votes for English laws' plan by Tories". The Independent (London). Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Common Law". The People's Law Dictionary. ALM Media Properties. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
↑ "The Common Law in the British Empire". H-net.msu.edu. 19 October 2000. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
↑ Fafinski 2007, p. 60.
↑ Fafinski 2007, p. 127.
↑ "Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom" (PDF). DCA.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Fafinski 2007, p. 67.
↑ "Crime over the last 25 years" (PDF). HomeOffice.gov.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "New record high prison population". BBC News. 8 February 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Prison population figures". Ministry Of Justice. 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
↑ Cooper, Hilary (29 March 2011). "Tiers shed as regional government offices disappear". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 16 June 2011.
↑ Department for Communities and Local Government. "Prosperous Places". communities.gov.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 December 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 Encyclopædia Britannica 2002, p. 100
↑ Redcliffe-Maud & Wood 1974.
1 2 Singh 2009, p. 53.
↑ Axford 2002, p. 315.
↑ Singh 2009, p. 54.
↑ "English Channel". Encyclopædia Britannica. britannica.com. 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2009.
↑ "History". EuroTunnel.com. Archived from the original on 16 November 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "The River Severn". BBC. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
↑ "Severn Bore and Trent Aegir". Environment Agency. Archived from the original on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
↑ "River Thames and London (England)". London Evening Standard. London. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
1 2 "North West England & Isle of Man: climate". Met Office. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
↑ "Pennines". Smmit Post. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
↑ "National Parks – About us". nationalparks.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
1 2 3 4 "What is the Climate like in Britain?". Woodlands Kent. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Temperature record changes hands". BBC News. 30 September 2003. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "English Climate". MetOffice.com. Archived from the original on 19 December 2007.
1 2 3 4 "2011 Census – Built-up areas". ONS. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
1 2 O'Brian, Harriet (24 November 2007). "The Complete Guide To: Cathedral cities in the UK". The Independent (London). Archived from the original on 12 August 2009. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
↑ "London vs. New York, 2005–06". Cinco Dias. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Global Financial Centres Index, 2009–03" (PDF). City of London Corporation. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 Office for National Statistics. "Regional Accounts". statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 26 August 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
↑ "The Welfare State – Never Ending Reform". BBC News. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
↑ Brignall, Miles (19 March 2014). "Personal allowance: Osborne's budget has been far from generous". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
↑ "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
↑ "Financial Centre". London.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ City of London Policy and Resources Committee. "The Global Financial Centres Index" (PDF). cityoflondon.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "New York dethrones London to become world's top financial center". Mail Online. 16 March 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
↑ "The Bank's relationship with Parliament". BankofEngland.co.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Monetary Policy Committee". BankofEngland.co.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "England Exports". EconomyWatch.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2012. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Tovey, Alan (2015-07-01). "Britain acts to protect £25bn-a-year aerospace industry". Telegraph. Retrieved 2016-04-16.
1 2 3 4 "Reasons to be cheerful about the UK aerospace sector". theengineer.co.uk.
↑ "About – Rolls-Royce". Archived from the original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
↑ "World Guide – England – Economy Overview". World Guide. Intute. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
↑ "Economy of the United Kingdom" (PDF). PTeducation. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
↑ "Metric system was British". BBC News. 13 July 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Isambard Kingdom Brunel". DesignMuseum.org. Archived from the original on 12 September 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Oakes 2002, p. 214
↑ Ronald Shillingford (2010). "The History of the World's Greatest- Entrepreneurs: Biographies of Success". p. 64–69
↑ Saunders 1982, p. 13
↑ White 2009, p. 335
↑ Levine 1960, p. 183
↑ Wohleber, Curt (Spring 2006). "The Vacuum Cleaner". Invention & Technology Magazine. American Heritage Publishing. Archived from the original on 13 March 2010. Retrieved 8 December 2010.
↑ "English Inventors and Inventions". English-Crafts.co.uk. Archived from the original on 15 April 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 O'Hanlon 2008, p. 205
1 2 3 UK Parliament 2007, p. 175
1 2 White 2002, p. 63.
↑ "27 September 1825 – Opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway". The Stockton and Darlington Railway. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
↑ "Delta Expects New Slots To Foster Growth At Heathrow Airport". The Wall Street Journal. 23 February 2011. Archived from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
1 2 3 Else 2007, p. 781.
↑ "BBC History on William Beveridge". BBC News. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "NHS Expenditure in England". House of Commons Library. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 December 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "NHS costs and exemptions". Department of Health. Archived from the original on 5 December 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Budget 2008, Chapter C" (PDF). HM Treasury. 3 March 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Private sector role in NHS". BBC News. 30 June 2006. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Office for National Statistics. "Life expectancy". statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 25 May 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
↑ Office for National Statistics. "Population estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland – current datasets". statistics.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
↑ United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. "World Population Prospects: Analytical Report for the 2004". United Nations. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Mason, Chris (16 September 2008). "Density of England rises". BBC News. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Khan, Urmee (16 September 2008). "England is most crowded country in Europe". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Office for National Statistics (2011). "Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales 2011". Statistics.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
↑ Oppenheimer 2006, p. 378.
↑ "British and Irish, descendant of the Basques?". Eitb24.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Oppenheimer, Stephen (10 October 2006). "What does being British mean? Ask the Spanish". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Wade, Nicholas (6 March 2007). "A United Kingdom? Maybe". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
↑ Thomas, M.G.; Stumpf, M.P.; Härke, H. (2006). "Evidence for an apartheid-like social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England". Proceedings. Biological sciences / the Royal Society 273 (1601): 2651–7. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3627. PMC 1635457. PMID 17002951.
↑ Hall, Allan (21 June 2011). "Forget two world wars and one World Cup ... geneticists reveal 50 per cent of Britons are German". Daily Mail (London). Retrieved 15 August 2011.
↑ "Roman Britons after 410". Britarch.ac.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Cameron, Keith (March 1994). Anglo-Saxon Origins: The Reality of the Myth. Malcolm Todd. ISBN 978-1-871516-85-2. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Legacy of the Vikings". BBC News. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Shifting Identities – statistical data on ethnic identities in the US". Bnet. 2001. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
↑ "Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories". Statistics Canada. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
↑ Centre for Population and Urban Research, Monash University. "Australian Population: Ethnic Origins" (PDF). Retrieved 29 July 2009.
↑ "Inmigración británica en Chile". Galeon.com. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
↑ Burke, Jason (9 October 2005). "An Englishman's home is his casa as thousands go south". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Travis, Alan; Sarah Knapton (16 November 2007). "Record numbers leave the country for life abroad". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 8 August 2009.
↑ "ONS: Population Estimates by Ethnic Group 2002–2009" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
↑ University of Wisconsin. "Medieval English society". Retrieved 14 August 2014.
↑ Office for National Statistics. "The UK population: past, present and future" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "One in four Britons claim Irish roots". BBC News. 16 March 2001. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
1 2 3 4 "British Immigration Map Revealed". BBC News. 7 September 2005. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 Paton, Graeme (1 October 2007). "One fifth of children from ethnic minorities". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 14 August 2014.
↑ Shepherd, Jessica (22 June 2011). "Almost a quarter of state school pupils are from an ethnic minority". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 17 January 2014.
↑ Leppard, David (10 April 2005). "Immigration rise increases segregation in British cities". The Times (London). Retrieved 8 August 2009.
↑ "Immigration debate hots up in England". The Independent News Service. 26 November 2008. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
↑ Milland, Gabriel (23 July 2009). "80% say cap immigration". Daily Express (London). Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "50 million population of England set to rise by six million in 25 years". Daily Mail (London). 12 October 2006. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ QS204EW – Main language, ONS 2011 Census. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
↑ "Official EU languages". European Commission. 8 May 2009. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009. Retrieved 16 October 2009.
↑ QS205EW – Proficiency in English, ONS 2011 census. Out of the 51,005,610 residents of England over the age of three, 50,161,765 (98%) can speak English "well" or "very well". Retrieved 20 July 2015.
↑ Arlotto 1971, p. 108.
↑ Green 2003, p. 13.
↑ Mujica, Mauro E. (19 June 2003). "English: Not America's Language?". The Globalist (Washington DC). Archived from the original on 17 January 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
↑ "English language history". Yaelf. Archived from the original on 13 February 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Government Offices for the English Regions. "Cornish language". gos.gov.uk. Retrieved 22 September 2009.
↑ Bates, Claire (23 February 2009). "Manx, Cornish and Irish just three of 2,500 languages facing extinction, say UN". Daily Mail (London). Retrieved 17 September 2009.
↑ "The Cornish Language Development Project – Evaluation – Final Report, page 20". Hywel Evans, Aric Lacoste / ERS. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
↑ "South West – Cornish Language". Government Office South West. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
↑ "On being a Cornish "Celt": changing Celtic heritage and traditions". University of Exeter. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 December 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
↑ Dugan, Emily (6 September 2009). "The Cornish: They revolted in 1497, now they're at it again". The Independent (London). Retrieved 17 September 2009.
↑ "Cornish in Schools". Cornish Language Partnership. 2009. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
↑ 'Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club', Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club, 1886–89, p. 137.
↑ Mark Ellis Jones, 'Little Wales beoynd England: the struggle of Selattyn, a Welsh parish in Shropshire', Journal of the National Library of Wales,, 31.1 (1999), pp. 132–3.
↑ Lipsett, Anthea (26 June 2008). "Number of primaries teaching foreign languages doubles". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 23 September 2009.
↑ Drury, Ian (15 August 2008). "English is a second language for 1 in 8 pupils in England". Daily Mail (London). Retrieved 23 September 2009.
↑ Booth, Robert (30 January 2013). "Polish becomes England's second language". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 30 January 2013.
↑ "Religion (2001 Census)". data.gov.uk. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
↑ "Church of England". BBC. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
↑ "Global Anglicanism at a Crossroads". PewResearch.org. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "People here 'must obey the laws of the land'". The Daily Telegraph (London). 9 February 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "The Methodist Church". BBC News. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "AN INDEPENDENT ACADEMIC STUDY ON CORNISH" (PDF). p. 8. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
↑ "Cambridge History of Christianity". Hugh McLeod. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 3 "United Kingdom – History of the Flag". FlagSpot.net. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 "From Expulsion (1290) to Readmission (1656): Jews and England" (PDF). Goldsmiths.ac.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
1 2 3 Office for National tatistics. "Religion". Statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 7 July 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 3 2011 ONS results
↑ Gearon 2002, p. 246.
↑ West 2003, p. 28.
↑ "Independent Schools in the United Kingdom". Encarta. encarta.msn.com. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
↑ Gearon 2002, p. 102.
↑ United Kingdom Parliamen. "Innovation, Universities, Science and Skills Committee Contents". publications.parliament.uk. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
↑ "QS World University Rankings Results 2014–2015". QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
↑ Hoyle, Ben (23 September 2007). "The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2007 – Profile for London School of Economics". The Times (London). Retrieved 6 June 2008.
↑ "FT Global MBA Rankings". Financial Times. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
↑ Webster 1937, p. 383.
↑ Lowe 1971, p. 317.
↑ "The Prehistoric Sites of Great Britain". Stone-Circles.org.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 3 "Ancient Roman architecture in England and Wales". Castles.me.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Colgrave 1985, p. 326.
↑ Pevsner 1942, p. 14.
1 2 Atkinson 2008, p. 189.
↑ Downes 2007, p. 17.
↑ "Architects to hear Prince appeal". BBC News. 12 May 2009. Retrieved 20 June 2009.
↑ Keary 1882, p. 50.
↑ Pollard 2004, p. 272.
1 2 Wood, Michael. "King Arthur, 'Once and Future King'". BBC News. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
1 2 3 Higham 2002, p. 25.
↑ Koch 2006, p. 732.
↑ Lacy 1986, p. 649.
↑ Briggs 2004, p. 26.
↑ Withington 2008, p. 224.
↑ "What is England's national costume?". Woodlands-Junior.kent.sch.uk. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
↑ Else 2007, p. 76.
↑ "The S.Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants". TheWorlds50Best.com. Archived from the original on 13 January 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Mart, Nicole (22 September 2008). "King Richard II's recipe book to go online". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 "Traditional English Food Specialities". TravelSignPosts.com. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "How to make the perfect full English breakfast". 25 June 2015.
↑ "Catherine of Braganza". Tea.co.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Types of Beer". Icons of England. Archived from the original on 30 October 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "The Prehistoric Cave Art of England" (PDF). ArchaeologyDataService.ac.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ English Heritage. "Aldborough Roman Site". english-heritage.org.uk. Archived from the original on 22 October 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Early Middle Ages Art". Tiscali.co.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
1 2 3 4 5 "English art". Tiscali.co.uk. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Turner, Chris. "The Bronze Age: Henry Moore and his successors". Tate Magazine (6).
↑ "Freud work sets new world record". BBC News. 14 May 2008. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
1 2 Warner 1902, p. 35.
↑ Rogers 2001, p. 17.
↑ Rogers 2001, p. 135.
1 2 Rowse 1971, p. 48.
↑ Norbrook 2000, p. 6.
↑ "Richard II". William Shakespeare. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Heywood 2007, p. 74.
↑ Watson 1985, p. 360.
↑ Cole 1947, p. 268.
↑ Hawkins-Dady 1996, p. 970.
↑ Eccleshare 2002, p. 5.
↑ Chappell 1966, p. 690.
↑ Lax 1989, p. 7.
↑ Richard Michael Kelly. A Christmas carol p.10. Broadview Press, 2003 ISBN 1-55111-476-3
↑ Paul At Fifty: Paul McCartney Time Magazine'.' Retrieved 25 October 2014
↑ Most Successful Group The Guinness Book of Records 1999, p.230. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
↑ 100 Greatest Artists Of All Time: The Beatles (No.1) Rolling Stone'.' Retrieved 25 October 2014.
↑ United Kingdom Parliament (July 2009). "British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel". Parliamentary Archives. parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 11 April 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
↑ Stradling 1993, p. 166.
↑ "Sondheim and Lloyd-Webber: the new musical" The New York Times.. referred to Andrew Lloyd Webber as "the most commercially successful composer in history"
↑ Recording Industry Association of America. "Top Selling Artists". riaa.com. Archived from the original on 1 July 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Else 2007, p. 65.
1 2 Foreman 2005, p. 371.
↑ "Jets, jeans and Hovis". The Guardian. 12 June 2015.
↑ "The Directors' Top Ten Directors". British Film Institute. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012.
↑ St. Pierre, Paul Matthew (1 April 2009). Music Hall Mimesis in British Film, 1895–1960: On the Halls on the Screen. New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-1611473995.
↑ "Harry Potter becomes highest-grossing film franchise". The Guardian (London). 11 September 2007. Retrieved 2 November 2010.
↑ "History of Ealing Studios". Ealing Studios. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
↑ London Symphony Orchestra and Film Music LSO. Retrieved 30 June 2011 Archived 30 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
↑ "Life of Brian tops comedy poll". BBC News (Total Film magazine poll: 29 September 2000) Retrieved 27 June 2015
↑ Statistical Yearbook 2011: 7.3 UK directors. UK Film Council.
↑ "Does Andy Serkis's motion capture acting deserve an Oscar?". The Telegraph. Retrieves 11 January 2015
↑ "Tim Webber: the man who put Sandra Bullock in space". Evening Standard. Retrieved 17 January 2014
↑ Barry Ronge's Classic DVD : Alice in Wonderland, The Times, It was made under the personal supervision of Walt Disney, and he took special care when animating British fantasy. He called them his "English Cycle".
↑ UNESCO. "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". World Heritage. whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
↑ "English World Heritage Sites to get strongest ever protections" (PDF). Institute of Historic Building Conservation. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Museum in London". BritishMuseum.org. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "250 Years of the British Museum". Time. 15 January 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
↑ "British Library". Encyclopædia Britannica. britannica.com. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "The National Gallery". ArtInfo.com. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Youngs, Ian (31 October 2002). "The art of Turner protests". BBC News. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
1 2 "Sheffield FC: 150 years of history". FIFA. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "History of squash". WorldSquash2008.com. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "History of the Game". NRA-Rounders.co.uk. Archived from the original on 12 November 2007.
↑ Paul Mitchell. "The first international football match". BBC. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
↑ "Hurst the hero for England in the home of football". FIFA.com. Retrieved 15 January 2015
↑ "Tracking 30 years of TV's most watched programmes". BBC. Retrieved 25 June 2015
↑ Rudd, Alyson (7 April 2008). "The father of football deserves much more". London: Times Online. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
↑ "History and time are key to power of football, says Premier League chief". The Times. Retrieved 30 November 2013
↑ "Premier League towers over world football, says Deloitte". sportbusiness.com. Archived from the original on 7 April 2010. Retrieved 8 January 2010.
↑ "UEFA ranking of European leagues". UEFA. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Caudwell, J.C. (2011). "'Does your boyfriend know you're here?' The spatiality of homophobia in men's football culture in the UK". Leisure Studies 30 (2): 123–138. doi:10.1080/02614367.2010.541481. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
↑ Richard Holt, Tony Mason. Sport in Britain, 1945–2000. p.129. Wiley-Blackwell, 2000
↑ "UEFA Champions League Finals 1956–2008". RSSSF. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Underdown 2000, p. 6.
↑ Cricinfo staff (26 August 2009). Ashes climax watched by a fraction of 2005 audience. Cricinfo. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
↑ A brief history of Yorkshire. Cricinfo. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
↑ Fay, Stephen (21 June 1998). "Cricket: Flaw Lord's out of order". The Independent (London). Retrieved 9 September 2009.
↑ John Hart "The National CV of Britain: A non-PC history of Britain.". Edfu Books. Retrieved 30 November 2013
↑ "Origins of Rugby – Codification "The innovation of running with the ball was introduced some time between 1820 and 1830."". Rugbyfootballhistory.com. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
↑ "England will host 2015 Rugby World Cup". BBC News. 28 July 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ "Rugby League World Cup 2013 will provide the sport with a true test of its popularity". The Telegraph. Retrieved 23 September 2015
↑ "Scotland is the home of golf". PGA Tour official website. Archived from the original on 28 August 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2008. Scotland is the home of golf ...
↑ Fry, Peter (July 2000). Samuel Ryder: The Man Behind the Ryder Cup. Wright Press.
↑ "Sir Nick Faldo drives on in business world". BBC. Retrieved 29 December 2013
↑ 125 years of Wimbledon: From birth of lawn tennis to modern marvels CNN. Retrieved 28 September 2011
↑ Clarey, Christopher (5 July 2008). "Traditional Final: It's Nadal and Federer". The New York Times (nytimes.co.uk). Retrieved 5 September 2009.
↑ Kaufman & Macpherson 2005, p. 958.
↑ Jackson, Peter (3 July 2009). "Who was Fred Perry?". BBC News. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
↑ "Top 20 British Boxers". Retrieved 12 April 2011.
↑ "The History of British Motorsport and Motor Racing at Silverstone". Silverstone (Silverstone.co.uk). Retrieved 31 October 2009.
↑ "F1 Champions: Dan Wheldon killed in Las Vegas". ESPN. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
↑ BBC (6 January 2003). "Part relishes Taylor triumph". BBC. Retrieved 18 January 2010.
↑ "Phil Taylor player profile". Dartsdatabase. Retrieved 23 July 2010.
↑ Benammar, Emily (22 May 2009). "The World Oldest Trans Atlantic Race". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 22 May 2009.
↑ "St. George – England's Patron Saint". Britannia.com. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
↑ "National flowers". Number10.gov.uk. 13 January 2003. Archived from the original on 15 May 2010. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
↑ Smith, Jed (3 June 2005). "England's Rose – The Official History". Museum of Rugby, Twickenham. RugbyNetwork.net. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
↑ "Jason Cowley loves the Commonwealth Games". New Statesman. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
↑ "The Great Saint George Revival". BBC News. 23 April 1998. Retrieved 5 September 2009.

Bibliography

Ackroyd, Peter (2000). London: the biography. Chatto & Windus. ISBN 1-85619-716-6.
Arlotto, Anthony (1971). Introduction to historical linguistics. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-12615-0.
Atkinson, T.D. (2008). English Architecture. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4097-2581-7.
Axford, Barrie (2002). Politics: an introduction. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25181-8.
Ball, Martin (1993). The Celtic Languages. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-01035-7.
Bartlett, Robert (1999). England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075–1225. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925101-0.
Bennett, James (2004). The Anglosphere Challenge. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-3333-6.
Brewer, Ebenezer (2006). Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 1-84022-310-3.
Briggs, Katharine (2004). A Dictionary of British Folk-tales in the English Language. Routledge. ISBN 0-203-39737-1.
Chappell, William (1966). The Roxburghe Ballads. New York: AMS Press. OCLC 488599560.
Clark, David M.; Steed, Michael; Marshall, Sally (1973). Greater Manchester Votes: A Guide to the New Metropolitan Authorities. Stockport: Redrose. ISBN 978-0-9502932-0-2.
Clemoes, Peter (2007). Anglo-Saxon England, Volume 12. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-03834-0.
Cole, George (1947). The Life of William Cobbett. Home & Van Thal. ISBN 0-8492-2139-0.
Colgrave, Bertram (1985). Two lives of Saint Cuthbert. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31385-6.
Colley, Linda (1992). Britons: Forging the Nation, 1701–1837. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05737-9.
Cox, Peter (1970). Demography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09612-6.
Crouch, David (2006). Normans: The History of a Dynasty. Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 978-1-85285-595-6.
Crofton, Ian (2007). The Kings and Queens of England. Quercus. ISBN 1-84724-065-8.
Crystal, David (2004). The Stories of English. The Overlook Press. ISBN 1-58567-601-2.
Downes, Kerry (2007). Christopher Wren. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-921524-3.
Eccleshare, Julia (2002). Beatrix Potter to Harry Potter. National Portrait Gallery. ISBN 1-85514-342-9.
Else, David (2007). Inghilterra. EDT srl. ISBN 978-88-6040-136-6.
Encyclopædia Britannica (2009). Encyclopædia Britannica. BiblioBazaar. ISBN 0-559-09589-9.
Encyclopædia Britannica (2002). The New Encyclopædia Britannica. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-85229-787-4.
Fafinski, Stefan (2007). English legal system. Pearson Education. ISBN 1-4058-2358-5.
Foreman, Susan (2005). London: a musical gazetteer. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10402-2.
Foster, Damon (1988). A Blake dictionary. UPNE. ISBN 0-87451-436-3.
Fowler, Kenneth (1967). The Age of Plantagenet and Valois: The Struggle for Supremacy, 1328–1498. Putnam. ISBN 0-236-30832-7.
Gallagher, Michael (2006). The United Kingdom Today. London: Franklin Watts. ISBN 978-0-7496-6488-6.
Gearon, Liam (2002). Education in the United Kingdom. David Fulton. ISBN 1-85346-715-4.
Goldberg, Jeremy (1996). "Introduction". In Mark Ormrod & P.G. Lindley. The Black Death in England. Stamford: Paul Watkins. ISBN 1-871615-56-9.
Green, Tamara (2003). The Greek & Latin roots of English. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-1466-8.
Hawkins-Dady, Mark (1996). Reader's guide to literature in English. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-884964-20-6.
Heywood, Andrew (2007). Political Ideologies: An Introduction. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-230-52179-7.
Higham, NJ (2002). King Arthur: myth-making and history. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-21305-3.
Kaufman, Will; Macpherson, Heidi (2005). Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-431-8.
Kirby, D.P. (2000). The earliest English kings. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24210-X.
Keary, Charles Francis (1882). Outlines of primitive belief among the Indo-European races. C Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-7905-4982-4.
Kenny, Michael; English, Richard; Hayton, Richard (2008). Beyond the Constitution? Englishness in a post-devolved Britain. Institute for Public Policy Research.
Koch, John (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-440-7.
Lacy, Norris (1986). The Arthurian Encyclopedia. Garland Pub. ISBN 0-8240-8745-3.
Lax, Roger (1989). The Great Song Thesaurus. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505408-3.
Levine, Israel E. (1960). Conqueror of smallpox: Dr. Edward Jenner. Messner. ISBN 978-0-671-63888-7.
Lowe, Roy (1971). The English school. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-7100-6882-4.
Lyon, Bryce Dale (1960). A constitutional and legal history of medieval England. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-393-95132-4.
Major, John (2004). History in Quotations. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35387-6.
Marden, Orison (2003). Home Lover's Library. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-5324-X.
Massey, Gerald (2007). A Book of the Beginnings, Vol.1. Cosimo. ISBN 1-60206-829-1.
McNeil, Robina; Nevell, Michael (2000). A Guide to the Industrial Archaeology of Greater Manchester. Association for Industrial Archaeology. ISBN 0-9528930-3-7.
Molyneaux, George (2015). The Formation of the English Kingdom in the Tenth Century. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-871791-1.
Norbrook, David (2000). Writing the English Republic: Poetry, Rhetoric and Politics, 1627–1660. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78569-3.
O'Hanlon, Ardal (2008). Global Airlines. Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-6439-8.
Oakes, Elizabeth H. (2002). A to Z of STS scientists. Facts on File Inc. ISBN 978-0-8160-4606-5.
Office for National Statistics (2000). Britain 2001: The Official Handbook of the United Kingdom. London: Stationery Office Books. ISBN 978-0-11-621278-8.
Oppenheimer, Stephen (2006). Origins of the British. Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1890-0.
Pevsner, Nikolaus (1942). An outline of European architecture. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-14-061613-6.
Pollard, A.J. (2004). Imagining Robin Hood. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22308-3.
Rankov, Boris (1994). The Praetorian Guard. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-361-3.
Redcliffe-Maud, John; Wood, Bruce (1974). English Local Government Reformed. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-885091-3.
Reitan, Earl Aaron (2003). The Thatcher Revolution. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2203-2.
Ripley, George (1869). The New American Cyclopædia. D. Appleton.
Rogers, Pat (2001). The Oxford illustrated history of English literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285437-2.
Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World. McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-2248-3.
Rowse, Alfred (1971). Elizabethan Renaissance. Scribner. ISBN 0-684-12682-6.
Saunders, Paul (1982). Edward Jenner, the Cheltenham years, 1795–1823. University Press of New England. ISBN 978-0-87451-215-1.
Scruton, Roger (1982). A dictionary of political thought. Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-33439-6.
Singh, Udai (2009). Decentralized democratic governance in new millennium. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 81-8069-540-9.
Stradling, R.A. (1993). The English musical Renaissance, 1860–1940. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-03493-0.
UK Parliament (2007). Department for Transport annual report 2007. Stationery Office. ISBN 978-0-10-170952-1.
Underdown, David (2000). Start of Play: Cricket and Culture in Eighteenth-Century England. Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9330-8.
Ward, Paul (2004). Britishness Since 1870. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-49472-1.
Warner, Charles (1902). Library of the world's best literature, ancient and modern. International society. ISBN 1-60520-202-9.
Watson, John (1985). English poetry of the Romantic period, 1789–1830. Longman. ISBN 0-582-49259-9.
Webster, Frederick A.M. (1937). Our great public schools: their traditions, customs and games. London: Ward, Lock. OCLC 638146843.
West, Anne (2003). Underachievement in schools. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-24132-8.
White, Fred (2009). Physical Signs in Medicine and Surgery: An Atlas of Rare, Lost and Forgotten Physical Signs. Xlibris Corp. ISBN 978-1-4415-0829-4.
White, Peter (2002). Public transport. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-25772-7.
Wilson, David; Game, Chris (2002). Local Government in the United Kingdom (3rd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-333-94859-0.
Withington, Robert (2008). English Pageantry; An Historical Outline. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4086-8062-9.
World Book (2007). The World Book Encyclopedia, Volume 6. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-7166-0102-8.
Wright, Kevin J (2008). The Christian Travel Planner. Thomas Nelson Inc. ISBN 1-4016-0374-2.
Young, Robert JC (2008). The Idea of English Ethnicity. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-0129-5.
Ziegler, Philip (2003). The Black Death (New ed.). Sutton: Sutton Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7509-3202-8.

External links

English Heritage – National body protecting English heritage
Natural England – Wildlife and the natural world of England
VisitEngland – English Tourist Board
BBC News – England – News items from BBC News relating to England
GOV.UK – Website of the British Government
Geographic data related to England at OpenStreetMap

Articles related to England

England articles

History

Overviews	Timeline Education Local government Maritime Military Social

Chronology	Prehistoric Roman Britain Lloegyr Anglo-Saxon England Heptarchy Kingdom of England Norman conquest Angevin Empire Wars of the Roses Tudor period Stuart period English Renaissance English Reformation Elizabethan era Jacobean era Civil War Union with Scotland Georgian era Regency Victorian era Edwardian period The Blitz

Geography

Politics

Culture

Anglophilia Castles Country clothing Cuisine Demographics Education Folklore Fête Landscape garden Identity Innovations and discoveries English language in England Museums People list Religion Church of England Afternoon Tea

Sport	Cricket national team Football The Football Association national team Rugby league Rugby Football League national team Rugby union Rugby Football Union national team Wimbledon

Symbols

Outline

Book
Category
Portal
WikiProject

English-speaking world

Click on a coloured area to see an article about English in that country or region

Further links

Articles

Lists

Countries and territories where English (or English Creole) is the national language or the native language of the majority

Africa	Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

Americas	Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda The Bahamas Barbados Belize Bermuda British Virgin Islands Canada Cayman Islands Dominica Falkland Islands Grenada Guyana Jamaica Montserrat Saba Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Martin Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Trinidad and Tobago Turks and Caicos Islands United States United States Virgin Islands

Europe	Guernsey Ireland Isle of Man Jersey United Kingdom

Oceania	Australia New Zealand Norfolk Island Pitcairn Islands

Countries and territories where English is an official language, but not the majority first language

Africa	Botswana Cameroon The Gambia Ghana Kenya Lesotho Liberia Malawi Mauritius Namibia Nigeria Rwanda Sierra Leone Somaliland South Africa South Sudan Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe

Americas	Puerto Rico

Asia	Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Hong Kong Special Administrative Region India Pakistan Philippines Singapore

Europe	Gibraltar Malta

Oceania	American Samoa Cook Islands Fiji Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tokelau Tuvalu Vanuatu

Dependencies shown in italics.

United Kingdom articles

History

Chronology	Formation Georgian era Victorian era Edwardian era World War I Interwar World War II UK since 1945 (Postwar Britain)

By topic	Economic Empire Maritime Military

Geography

Administrative	Countries of the United Kingdom Crown dependencies Overseas territories City status Towns Former colonies

Physical	British Isles terminology Great Britain Coastline Geology Northern Ireland Lakes and lochs Mountains Rivers Volcanoes

Resources	Energy/Renewable energy Biodiesel Coal Geothermal Hydraulic frac. Hydroelectricity Marine North Sea oil Solar Wind Food Agriculture Fishing English Scottish Hunting Materials Flora Forestry Mining

Politics

Constitution Courts Elections Foreign relations Judiciary Law Law enforcement Legislation Monarchy monarchs Nationality Parliament House of Commons House of Lords Political parties

Government	Cabinet list Civil service Departments Prime Minister list

Military	Royal Navy Army Royal Air Force Weapons of mass destruction

Economy

Society

Affordability of housing Crime Demography Drug policy Education Ethnic groups Health care Immigration Innovation Languages Poverty Food banks Prostitution Public holidays Social care Social structure

Culture	Art Cinema Cuisine Identity Literature Media television Music Religion Sport Symbols Theatre

Countries of the United Kingdom

England	History social timeline Geography Politics Law Economy tourism Education Health care Culture Religion Symbols

Northern Ireland	History Geography Politics Assembly Executive First Minister and deputy Law Economy tourism Education Health care Culture Religion Symbols

Scotland	History timeline Geography Politics Parliament Government First Minister Law Economy tourism Education Health care Culture Religion Symbols

Wales	History Geography Welsh Government Politics Assembly First Minister Law Economy tourism Education Health care Culture Religion Symbols

Book
Category
Portal
WikiProject

Countries, territories and dependencies of the United Kingdom

Constituent countries	England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales

Overseas territories	Akrotiri and Dhekelia¹ Anguilla Bermuda British Antarctic Territory² British Indian Ocean Territory British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands Gibraltar Montserrat Pitcairn Islands Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Turks and Caicos Islands

Crown dependencies	Bailiwick of Guernsey Guernsey Alderney Sark Isle of Man Jersey

Former colonies	List of countries that gained independence from the United Kingdom

¹ Sovereign Base Areas. ² Partial suspension of sovereignty due to the Antarctic Treaty.

British Isles

Terminology
- Alba
- Albion
- Britain
- Éire
- Hibernia
Naming dispute

Politics

Sovereign states	Ireland United Kingdom (England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales)

Crown dependencies	Guernsey Jersey Isle of Man

Political cooperation	Ireland–United Kingdom relations British–Irish Council British–Irish Intergovernmental Conference British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly Common Travel Area

Geography

Island groups	Channel Islands Islands of the Clyde Great Britain Hebrides Inner Outer Ireland Isle of Man Northern Isles Orkney Shetland Isles of Scilly

Lists of islands of	Bailiwick of Guernsey Ireland Bailiwick of Jersey Isle of Man United Kingdom England Scotland Wales

History

Island groups	Ireland

Current states	Ireland United Kingdom England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales Guernsey Jersey Isle of Man

Former states	Irish Free State Kingdom of England Principality of Wales Kingdom of Great Britain Kingdom of Ireland Kingdom of Scotland United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

Society

Modern languages	Germanic English Scots Celtic Cornish Scottish Gaelic Irish Manx Welsh Romance Auregnais French Guernésiais Jèrriais Sercquiais Other BSL ISL NISL Shelta

People	British Cornish English English Gypsies Irish Irish Travellers Kale Manx Northern Irish Scottish Ulster-Scots Welsh

British people

English language English-speaking world Anglosphere British diaspora

Anglo-Irish Anguillans Ascension Islanders Bermudians British Virgin Islanders Caymanians Chagossians (Îlois) Channel Islanders Cornish English Falkland Islanders Gibraltarians Hongkongers (British Nationals (Overseas)) Manx Montserratians Northern Irish Orcadians Pitcairn Islanders Saint Helenians Scots Shetlanders Tristan Islanders Turks and Caicos Islanders Ulster Scots Welsh

1974–1996 ← Ceremonial counties of England → current

North East	Durham Northumberland Tyne and Wear

North West	Cheshire Cumbria Greater Manchester Lancashire Merseyside

Yorkshire and the Humber	East Riding of Yorkshire North Yorkshire South Yorkshire West Yorkshire

East Midlands	Derbyshire Leicestershire Lincolnshire Northamptonshire Nottinghamshire Rutland

West Midlands	Herefordshire Shropshire Staffordshire Warwickshire West Midlands Worcestershire

East	Bedfordshire Cambridgeshire Essex Hertfordshire Norfolk Suffolk

Greater London	City of London

South East	Berkshire Buckinghamshire East Sussex Hampshire Isle of Wight Kent Oxfordshire Surrey West Sussex

South West	City of Bristol Cornwall Devon Dorset Gloucestershire Somerset Wiltshire

National personifications

Argentina Effigies of Argentina Armenia Mother Armenia Australia Boxing kangaroo Little Boy from Manly Bangladesh Mother Bengal Belgium Leo Belgicus Brazil Efígie da República Cambodia Preah Thong and Neang Neak Canada Johnny Canuck China Yanhuang Czech Republic Čechie Czech Vašek Švejk Denmark Holger Danske Finland Finnish Maiden France Marianne Georgia Kartvlis Deda Germany Deutscher Michel Germania Greece Athena "Greece" of Delacroix Iceland Lady of the Mountain India Bharat Mata Indonesia Ibu Pertiwi Ireland Ériu Hibernia Kathleen Ni Houlihan Israel Srulik Italy Italia turrita Japan Amaterasu Kenya Wanjiku Korea Dangun Ungnyeo Malta Melita Netherlands Dutch Maiden New Zealand Zealandia Norway Ola Nordmann Philippines Juan dela Cruz Maria Clara Poland Polonia Portugal Efígie da República Zé Povinho Russia Mother Russia Serbia Mother Serbia Kosovo Maiden Spain Hispania Sweden Mother Svea Switzerland Helvetia Ukraine Cossack Mamay United Kingdom Britannia John Bull Dame Wales United States Brother Jonathan Columbia Lady Liberty Uncle Sam Billy Yank Northern states Johnny Reb Southern states

Other symbols of Liberty

Authority control	WorldCat Identities VIAF: 142995804 LCCN: n82068148 ISNI: 0000 0001 2293 4507 GND: 4014770-8 SUDOC: 027215148 BNF: cb11930575r (data)

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Friday, May 06, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.

	Thomas Tallis' "Lamentations I" "Greensleeves" Henry Purcell's "The Queen's Dolour (A Farewell)" Elgar's "Pomp & Circumstance March No. 1" The Rolling Stones' "Paint It, Black"
Problems playing these files? See media help.

England

Toponymy

History

Prehistory and antiquity

Middle Ages

Early Modern

Late Modern and contemporary

Governance

Politics

Law

Regions, counties, and districts

Geography

Landscape and rivers

Climate

Major conurbations

Economy

Science and technology

Transport

Healthcare

Demography

Population

Language

Religion

Education

Culture

Architecture

Folklore

Cuisine

Visual arts

Literature, poetry and philosophy

Performing arts

Cinema

Museums, libraries, and galleries

Sports

National symbols

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links