Assam

For the tea, see Assam tea. For the silk, see Assam silk. For the oil, see Assam oil.
State of Assam
অসম
State
Clockwise from the top, Kamakhya Temple (Nilachal Hills, Guwahati), Devi Dol (Sivasagar), Ahom Kings' Royal Sports' Pavilion - Rang Ghar (Sivasagar), Kolia Bhomora Bridge over Brahmaputra (Tezpur), A view of a Tea Estate (Dibrugarh), The Classical Dance Form - Sattriya, The State Animal - Indian Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), Packaged Tea - Assam (Brand), The Seat of Assam Literature / Rhetorical Congress: Assam Sahitya Sabha - CK Handique Bhawan (Jorhat), On display - Cannons of Talatal Ghar (Sivasagar), The Royal Tumulus - Maidam (Charaideo), Ahom Kings’ Palace - (Garhgaon, Sivasagar).

Seal

Location of Assam in India

Map of Assam
Coordinates (Dispur): 26°08′N 91°46′E / 26.14°N 91.77°E / 26.14; 91.77Coordinates: 26°08′N 91°46′E / 26.14°N 91.77°E / 26.14; 91.77
Country  India
Region Northeast India
Before statehood Assam Province
Established 15 August 1947
Capital Dispur
Largest city
Largest metro		 Guwahati
Districts 32
Government
 • Governor Padmanabha Balakrishna Acharya
 • Chief Minister Tarun Gogoi (INC)
 • Legislature Unicameral (126 seats)
 • Parliamentary constituency 14
 • High Court Gauhati High Court
Area
 • Total 78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi)
Area rank 17th
Population (2011)
 • Total 31,205,576
 • Rank 15th
 • Density 400/km2 (1,000/sq mi)
Time zone IST (UTC+05:30)
ISO 3166 code IN-AS
HDI Increase 0.444 (low)
HDI rank 22nd (2005)
Literacy 79.18% (26th)[1]
Official language(s) Assamese
Co-official languages English,
Bengali (In the three districts of Barak Valley),
Bodo (In the four districts of Bodoland Territorial Council)[2][2]
Website assam.gov.in

^[*] Assam has had a legislature since 1937.

^[*] Assam is one of the original provinces of British India.
State symbols of Assam
Language

Assamese

Song

O Mur Apunar Dex

Dance

Bihu dance

Animal

One-horned rhinoceros

Bird

White-winged wood duck

Flower

Rhynchostylis retusa

Tree

Dipterocarpus macrocarpus

River

Brahmaputra

Assam (English pronunciation: /əˈsæm/  listen ; Assamese: অসম Ôxôm [ɔˈxɔm]  listen ; Bodo: आसाम Asam; Bengali: আসাম Âshám [ɑːˈʃɑːm]  listen ) is a state in Northeast India. Located south of the eastern Himalayas, Assam comprises the Brahmaputra Valley and the Barak Valley along with the Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao districts with an area of 30,285 sq mi (78,440 km2). Assam, along with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya, is one of the Seven Sister States. Geographically Assam and these states are connected to the rest of India via a 22 kilometres (14 mi) strip of land in West Bengal called the Siliguri Corridor or "Chicken's Neck".[3] Assam shares an international border with Bhutan and Bangladesh; and its culture, people and climate are similar to those of South-East Asia – comprising the elements in India’s Look East policy.[4] Assam became a part of British India after the British East India Company occupied the region following the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824–1826.

Assam is known for Assam tea and Assam silk. The first oil well in Asia was drilled here. The state has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the pygmy hog, tiger and various species of Asiatic birds. It provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. The Assamese economy is aided by wildlife tourism, centred around Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park which are World Heritage Sites. Sal tree forests are found in the state, which as a result of rainfall looks green all year round. Assam receive more rainfall compared to most part of India. This rain feeds the Brahmaputra River, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a hydro-geomorphic and aesthetic environment.

Etymology

Main article: Etymology of Assam

The precise etymology of "Assam" came from Ahom Dynasty. In the classical period and up to the 12th century the region east of the Karatoya river, largely congruent to present-day Assam, was called Kamarupa, and alternatively, Pragjyotisha.[5] In medieval times the Mughals used Asham (eastern Assam) and Kamrup (western Assam),[6][7][8] and during British colonialism, the English used Assam. Though many authors have associated the name with the 13th century Shan invaders[9] the precise origin of the name is not clear. It was suggested by some that the Sanskrit word Asama ("unequalled", "peerless", etc.) was the root, which has been rejected by Kakati,[10] and more recent authors have concurred that it is a latter-day Sanskritization of a native name.[11] Among possible origins are Tai (A-Cham)[12] and Bodo (Ha-Sam).[13]

History

Main article: History of Assam

Pre-history

Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlements from all the periods of the Stone ages. The hills at the height of 1,500–2,000 feet (460 to 615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making.[14]

Mythology

According to a late text, Kalika Purana (c. 9th–10th century AD), the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danav of the Danava dynasty, which was removed by Naraka of Mithila who established the Naraka dynasty. The last of these rulers, also Naraka, was slain by Krishna. Naraka's son Bhagadatta became the king, who (it is mentioned in the Mahabharata) fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast.

Ancient

Further information: Kamarupa

Samudragupta's 4th century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa (Western Assam)[15] and Davaka (Central Assam)[16] as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West Bengal.[17]

Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c.655–900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. Country was 10,000 li (6000 km) in circuit and capital city Pragjyotishpura was about 30 li (18 km). All three dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura, an immigrant from Aryavarta.[18]

In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650 AD), the Chinese traveler Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended till c. 1255 AD by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 AD) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 AD) dynasties.[14]

Medieval

Ahom Kingdom, c. 1826
The Ahom Kingdom, c. 1826
Kareng ghar
Kareng ghar, the palace of the Ahom kings
First Ahom king Sworgodeu Chao-lung Siu-ka-phaa (Sukaphaa).

Three later dynasties, the Ahoms, the Sutiya and the Koch. The Ahoms, a Tai group, ruled Upper Assam[19] for nearly 600 years (1228–1826 AD) while the Sutiya rulers (1187 -1673 AD) held the regions on the north bank of Brahmaputra with its domain from Vishwanath in the west to Parshuram Kund in the east in Upper Assam and in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. The Koch, a Tibeto-Burmese, established sovereignty in c. 1510 AD. The Koch kingdom in western Assam and present North Bengal was at its zenith in the early reign of Naranarayana (c. 1540–1587 AD). It split into two in c. 1581 AD, the western part as a Moghul vassal and the eastern as an Ahom satellite state. Since c. the 13th century AD, the nerve centre of Ahom polity was upper Assam; the kingdom was gradually extended till Karatoya River in the c. 17th or 18th century. It was at its zenith during the reign of Sukhrungpha or Sworgodeu Rudra Simha (c. 1696–1714 AD). Among other dynasty, the Kacharis (13th century-1854 AD) ruled from Dikhow River to central and southern Assam and had their capital at Dimapur. The rivalry between the Sutiyas and Ahoms for the supremacy of eastern Assam led to a series of battles between them from the early 16th century till the start of the 17th century, which saw great loss of men and money. With expansion of Ahom kingdom, by the early 17th century, the Sutiya areas were annexed and since c. 1536 AD Kacharis remained only in Cachar and North Cachar more as an Ahom ally then a competing force. Despite numerous invasions, mostly by the Muslim rulers, no western power ruled Assam until the arrival of the British. Though the Mughals made seventeen attempts to invade, they were never successful. The most successful invader Mir Jumla, a governor of Aurangzeb, briefly occupied Garhgaon (c. 1662–63 AD), the then capital, but found it difficult to control people making guerrilla attacks on his forces, forcing them to leave. The decisive victory of the Assamese led by the great general Lachit Borphukan on the Mughals, then under command of Raja Ram Singha at Saraighat (1671) had almost ended Mughal ambitions in this region. Mughals were finally expelled from Lower Assam during the reign of Gadadhar Singha in 1682 AD.

Colonial era

Map of Assam during 1907-1909
A map of the British Indian Empire in 1909 during the partition of Bengal (1905–1911), showing British India in two shades of pink (coral and pale) and the princely states in yellow. The Assam Province (initially as the Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam) can be seen towards the north-eastern side of India.
Further information: Colonial Assam and Assam Province

The discovery of Camellia sinensis in 1834 in Assam was followed by its tests in 1836–37 in London. The British allowed companies to rent land from 1839 onwards. Thereafter tea plantations mushroomed in Eastern Assam,[20] where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported labourers from China and hostilities of native Assamese resulted in migration of forced labourers from central and eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local Camellia assamica as the most suitable one for Assam. By the 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. Industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during the 1870s.

Despite the commercial success, tea laborers continued to be exploited, working and living under poor conditions. Fearful of greater government interference, the tea growers formed the Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo. The organization was very successful in this, and even after India’s independence, conditions of the laborers have improved very little.[21]

In the later part of the 18th century, religious tensions and atrocities of nobles led to the Moamoria rebellion, resulting in tremendous casualties of lives and property. The rebellion was suppressed but the kingdom was severely weakened by the civil war. Political rivalry between Prime Minister Purnananda Burhagohain and Badan Chandra Borphukan, the Ahom Viceroy of Western Assam, led to the invitation to the Burmese by the latter,[22][23][24][25] in turn leading to three successive Burmese invasions of Assam. The reigning monarch Chandrakanta Singha tried to check the Burmese invaders but he was defeated after fierce resistance.[26][27][28]

A reign of terror was unleashed by the Burmese on the Assamese people,[29][30][31][32] who fled to neighbouring kingdoms and British-ruled Bengal.[33][34] The Burmese reached the East India Company's borders, and the First Anglo-Burmese War ensued in 1824. The war ended under the Treaty of Yandabo[35] in 1826, with the Company taking control of Western Assam and installing Purandar Singha as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted till 1838 and thereafter the British gradually annexed the entire region.

Initially Assam was made a part of the Bengal Presidency, then in 1906 it was a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a chief commissioners' province. In 1913, a legislative council and, in 1937, the Assam Legislative Assembly, were formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas.

After a few initial unsuccessful attempts to gain independence for Assam during the 1850s, anti-colonial Assamese joined and actively supported the Indian National Congress against the British from the early 20th century, with Gopinath Bordoloi emerging as the preeminent nationalist leader in the Assam Congress.[36] Bordoloi's major political rival in this time was Sir Saidullah, who was representing the Muslim League, and had the backing of the influential Muslim cleric Maulana Bhasani.[37]

The Assam territory was first separated from Bengal in 1874 as the 'North-East Frontier' non-regulation province, also known as the Assam Chief-Commissionership. It was incorporated into the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 after the partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and re-established in 1912 as Assam Province .[38]

The Assam Postage Circle was established by 1873 under the headship of the Deputy Post Master General.[39]

At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. The Assam Province was one among major eight provinces of British India. The table hereafter shows the major original provinces during British India covering the Assam Province under Administrative Office of Chief Commissioner.

The following table lists their areas and populations. It does not include those of the dependent Native States:[40]

Showing an historical incident at Kanaklata Udyan, Tezpur

With the partition of India in 1947, Assam became a constituent state of India. The district of Sylhet of Assam (excluding the Karimganj subdivision) was given up to East Pakistan (which later became Bangladesh).

Modern history

Assam till the 1950s; The new states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram formed in the 1960-70s. From Shillong, the capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, now a part of Guwahati. After the Indo-China war in 1962, Arunachal Pradesh was also separated out.

The government of India, which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a state, divided Assam into several states since 1970 to satisfy national aspirations of the tribal populations living within the then borders of then Assam. In 1963 the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India under the name of Nagaland. Part of Tuensang was added to Nagaland. In 1970, in response to the demands of the tribal peoples of the Meghalaya Plateau, the districts embracing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were formed into an autonomous state within Assam; in 1972 it became a separate state under the name of Meghalaya. In 1972, Arunachal Pradesh (the North East Frontier Agency) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were separated from Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986.

Since the restructuring of Assam after independence, communal tensions and violence remain there. Separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting in fragmentation of Assam. In 1961, the Government of Assam passed a legislation making use of the Assamese language compulsory. It was withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar. In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year Assam Agitation[41] triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighboring Bangladesh and changing the demographics. The agitation ended after an accord between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent.[42]

The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups like United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA)[41] and National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB). In November 1990, the Government of India deployed the Indian army, after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnicity based militant groups have grown. Regional autonomy has been ensured for Bodo-Kachari community in Bodoland Territorial Council Areas (BTC), for the Karbis in Karbi Anglong and for the people of Dima Hasao district under the 6th schedule and Autonomous District Councils (ADC) areas under Indian constitution, while Non-6th Schedule States in the North-East where under 73rd and 74th amendments (Panchayati Raj Institutions) have been applied in Assam (excluding Karbi Anglong Autonomous District Council and North Cachar Hills Autonomous Council), after agitation of the communities due to sluggish rate of development and general apathy of successive state governments towards indigenous communities.

Geography

Environs: Assam, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east.

A significant geographical aspect of Assam is that it contains three of six physiographic divisions of India - The Northern Himalayas (Eastern Hills), The Northern Plains (Brahmaputra plain) and Deccan Plateau (Karbi Anglong). As the Brahmaputra flows in Assam the climate here is cold and there is rainfall most of the month.Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam is an antecedent river, older than the Himalayas. The river with steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a braided river (at times 10 mi/16 km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 50–60 mi/80–100 km wide, 600 mi/1000 km long).[43] The hills of Karbi Anglong, North Cachar and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system.[43] In the south, the Barak originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border) flows through the Cachar district with a 25–30 miles (40–50 km) wide valley and enters Bangladesh with the name Surma River.

Urban Centres include Guwahati, one of the 100 fastest growing cities in the world.[44] Guwahati is the gateway to the North-East India. Silchar, (in the Barak valley) the 2nd most populous city in Assam and an important centre of business, education and tourism. Other large cities include Dibrugarh, a oil, natural gas, tea and tourism industry;[45] and Jorhat.

Climate

With the "Tropical Monsoon Rainforest Climate", Assam is temperate (summer max. at 95–100 °F or 35–38 °C and winter min. at 43–46 °F or 6–8 °C) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity.[43][46] The climate is characterized by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperatures and affecting foggy nights and mornings in winters, frequent during the afternoons. Spring (Mar–Apr) and autumn (Sept–Oct) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature. Assam's agriculture usually depends on the south-west monsoon rains.

Flooding

Every year, flooding from the Brahmaputra and other rivers deluges places in Assam. The water levels of the rivers rise because of rainfall resulting in the rivers overflowing their banks and engulfing nearby areas. Apart from houses and livestock being washed away by flood water, bridges, railway tracks and roads are also damaged by the calamity, which causes communication breakdown in many places. Fatalities are also caused by the natural disaster in many places of the State.[47][48]

Fauna

Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests,[49] deciduous forests, riverine grasslands,[50] bamboo[51] orchards and numerous wetland[52] ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests.

Assam has wildlife sanctuaries, the most prominent of which are two UNESCO World Heritage sites[53]-the Kaziranga National Park, on the bank of the Brahmaputra River, and the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, near the border with Bhutan. The Kaziranga is a refuge for the fast-disappearing Indian one-horned rhinoceros. The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered and threatened species including the white-winged wood duck or deohanh, Bengal florican, black-breasted parrotbill, red-headed vulture, white-rumped vulture, greater adjutant, Jerdon's babbler, rufous-necked hornbill, Bengal tiger, Asian elephant, pygmy hog, gaur, wild water buffalo, Indian hog deer, hoolock gibbon, golden langur, capped langur, barasingha, Ganges river dolphin, Barca snakehead, Ganges shark, Burmese python, brahminy river turtle, black pond turtle, Asian forest tortoise, and Assam roofed turtle. Threatened species that are extinct in Assam include the gharial, a critically endangered fish-eating crocodilian, and the pink-headed duck (which may be extinct worldwide). For the state bird, the white-winged wood duck, Assam is a globally important area.[54] In addition to the above, there are three other National Parks in Assam namely Dibru Saikhowa National Park, Nameri National Park and the Orang National Park.

Assam has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the pygmy hog, tiger and numerous species of birds, and it provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. Kaziranga and Manas are both World Heritage Sites. The state contains Sal tree forests and forest products, much depleted from earlier times. A land of high rainfall, Assam displays greenery. The Brahmaputra River tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with hydro-geomorphic environment.

The state has the largest population of the wild water buffalo in the world.[55] The state has the highest diversity of birds in India with around 820 species.[56] With subspecies the number is as high as 946.[57] The mammal diversity in the state is around 190 species.[58]

Blooming of Kopou Orchid marks the beginning of festive season Bihu in Assam.

Flora

Assam is remarkably rich in Orchid species and the Foxtail orchid is the state flower of Assam.[59] The recently established Kaziranga National Orchid and Biodiversity Park boasts more than 500 of the estimated 1,314 orchid species found in India.

Geology

Assam has petroleum, natural gas, coal, limestone and other minor minerals such as magnetic quartzite, kaolin, sillimanites, clay and feldspar.[60] A small quantity of iron ore is available in western districts.[60] Discovered in 1889, all the major petroleum-gas reserves are in Upper parts. A recent USGS estimate shows 399 million barrels (63,400,000 m3) of oil, 1,178 billion cubic feet (3.34×1010 m3) of gas and 67 million barrels (10,700,000 m3) of natural gas liquids in the Assam Geologic Province.[61]

The region is prone to natural disasters like annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes were recorded in 1869, 1897, and 1950.

Demographics

Main article: People of Assam

Population

District-wise Demographic Characteristics in 2001
People gathered at Kamakhya Temple for the Ambubachi Mela

Total population of Assam was 26.66 million with 4.91 million households in 2001.[63] Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts of Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta, Dhrubri, Darrang, and Cachar. Assam's population was estimated at 28.67 million in 2006 and at 30.57 million in 2011 and is expected to reach 34.18  million by 2021 and 35.60 million by 2026.[64]

As per 2011 census, total population of Assam was 31,169,272. The total population of the state has increased from 26,638,407 to 31,169,272 in the last ten years with a growth rate of 16.93%.[65]

Of the 32 districts, eight districts registered rise in the decadal population growth rate. Religious minority-dominated districts like Dhubri, Goalpara, Barpeta, Morigaon, Nagaon, and Hailakandi, recorded growth rates ranging from 20 per cent to 24 per cent during the last decade. Eastern Assam districts including Sivasagar, and Jorhat registered around 9 per cent population growth. These districts do not share any international border.[66]

In 2011, literacy rate in the state was 73.18%. Male literacy rate was 78.81% and female literacy rate was 67.27% [65] In 2001, the census had recorded literacy in Assam at 63.3% with male literacy at 71.3% and female at 54.6%. Urbanisation rate was recorded at 12.9%.[67]

Growth of population in Assam has risen since the mid-decades of the 20th century. Population grew from 3.29 million in 1901 to 6.70 million in 1941. It increased to 14.63 million in 1971 and 22.41 million in 1991.[63] The growth in the western and southern districts was high primarily due to the influx of people from East Pakistan, now Bangladesh.[42]

The mistrust and clashes between native Bodos and East Bengal rooted Muslims started as early as 1952.[68][69] At least 77 people died[70] and 400,000 people was displaced in the 2012 Assam violence between indigenous Bodos and East Bengal rooted Muslims.[71]

The Assamese Hindus are the largest community people in Assam . The population of Assamese Hindus in Assam is 11,379,000 making up 36.50 % of Assam population at 2011 census . The People of India project has studied 115 of the ethnic groups in Assam. 79 (69%) identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally, and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest settlers were Austroasiatic and Dravidians speakers, followed by Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan speakers, and Tai–Kadai speakers.[72] Forty-five languages are spoken by different communities, including three major language families: Austroasiatic (5), Sino-Tibetan (24) and Indo-European (12). Three of the spoken languages do not fall in these families. There is a high degree of bilingualism.

Religions

Kamakhya Temple

See also: Islam in Assam, Christianity in Assam

Religion in Assam (2011)[73]

  Hinduism (61.46%)
  Islam (34.22%)
  Christianity (3.73%)
  Buddhism (0.17%)
  Jainism (0.08%)
  Sikhism (0.06%)
  Other or not religious (0.3%)

According to the 2011 census, 61.5% were Hindus, 34.22% were Muslims.[73][74] Christian minorities (3.7%) are found among Scheduled Tribe population.[75] Scheduled Tribe population in Assam is around 13% in which Bodos account for 40%.[76] Other religions followed include Jainism (0.1%), Buddhism (0.2%), Sikhism (0.1%) and Animism (amongst Khamti, Phake, Aiton etc. communities).

Out of 32 districts of Assam, 9 are Muslim majority according to the 2011 census of India. The districts are Dhubri, Goalpara, Barpeta, Morigaon, Nagaon, Karimganj, Hailakandi, Darrang and Bongaigaon.[77][78][79]

Languages

7th–8th century specimen of Assamese (Kamrupi) literature

.

Languages of Assam in 2001[80][81][82]

  Assamese (48.8%)
  Bengali-Sylheti (27.5%)
  Bodo (4.8%)
  Hindi (5.88%)
  Nepali (2.12%)
  Mishing (1.9%)
  Karbi (1.5%)
  Santali (0.91%)
  Odia (0.86%)
  Others (6.73%)

Assamese and Bodo are the major indigenous and official languages while Bengali holds official status in the three districts in the Barak Valley and is the second most widely spoken language of the state (27.5%).[81]

Traditionally Assamese was the language of the commons (of mixed origin – Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman, Prakrit) in the ancient Kamarupa and in the medieval kingdoms of Kamatapur, Kachari, Sutiya, Borahi, Ahom and Koch. Traces of the language is found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, etc. in Charyapada (c. 7th–8th century AD). Modern dialects Kamrupi, Goalpariya etc. are the remnants. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by the ethno-cultural groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the stronger kingdoms and was required for needed economic integration. Localised forms of the language still exist in Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh. The form used in the upper Assam was enriched by the advent of Tai-Shans in the 13th century.

Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the American Missionaries based on the local form in practice near Sibsagar (Siwoxagor) district. Assamese (Osomeeya) is a rich language due to its hybrid nature with its unique characteristics of pronunciation and softness. Assamese literature is one of the richest.

The word Dimasa etymologically translates to "Son of the big river " (Di- Water, ma- suffix for great, sa-sons), the river being the mighty Brahmaputra. The Dimasa word "Di" for water forms the root word for many of the major rivers of Assam and the North East India like Dikrang which means green river, Dikhow which means "fetched water", Diyung (huge river) etc. The Brahmaputra River is known as Dilao (long river) among the Dimasas. Many of the towns and cities in Assam and Nagaland derived their names from Dimasa words. For example, Dimapur (a capital of Dimasa Kingdom), Dispur, Hojai, Diphu and Khaspur.

Bodo is an ancient language of Assam. Spatial distribution patterns of the ethno-cultural groups, cultural traits and the phenomenon of naming all the major rivers in the North East Region with Bodo-Kachari words (e.g. Dihing, Dibru, Dihong, D/Tista, Dikrai, etc.) reveal that it was the most important language in the ancient times. Bodo is now spoken largely in the Western Assam (Bodo Territorial Council area). After years of neglect, now Bodo language is getting attention and its literature is developing. Other native languages of Tibeto-Burman origin and related to Bodo-Kachari are Deori , Mising, Karbi, Rabha, and Tiwa.

There are approximately 7 lakhs Nepali speakers spread all over the state forming about 2.2% of Assam's total population. Majority of the Nepali speakers are found in the district of Sonitpur where over 3 lakh people speaks in Nepali language.

There are speakers of Tai languages in Assam. A total of six Tai language were spoken in Assam. Two are now extinct.[83]

The Tai Ahom language (brought by Sukaphaa and his followers), is no longer a spoken language today. The language is receiving increased attention for research after centuries of usage by the Bailungs (traditional priests).

Bengali is the official language in Barak Valley and the widely spoken language.Sylheti, a dialect of Bengali is mostly spoken in the region of Barak Valley.

Sadri, a dialect of Hindi, Santali, Kurukh and Mundari is spoken by the 6 millions tribal population (Tea tribes ) spread in the tea garden dominated districts of Assam. They were brought as tea estate labourers by the British from the tribal heartland of central-eastern India to Assam during the 1860s. They are mostly found in the districts of Upper Assam and Bodoland Territorial Administration Districts.

Government and politics

Districts of Assam as of 2014. The newly formed five districts are not shown in the map.

Assam Legislative Assembly

As of August 2015, the state has 32 administrative districts. On August 15, 2015, five new districts were formed in addition to former 27 districts. The five new districts are Biswanath (carved out of Sonitpur), Charaideo (of Sivasagar), Hojai (of Nagaon), South Salmara-Mankachar (of Dhubri) and West Karbi Anglong (of Karbi Anglong).[84][85] These districts are further sub-divided into 54 "Sub-divisions" or Mohkuma.[85] Every district is administered from a district headquarters with the office of the Deputy Commissoner, District Magistrate, Office of the District Panchayat and usually with a district court.

The districts are delineated on the basis of the features such as the rivers, hills, forests, etc. and majority of the newly constituted districts are sub-divisions of the earlier districts.

Local government

The local governance system is organised under the jila-parishad (District Panchayat) for a district, panchayat for group of or individual rural areas and under the urban local bodies for the towns and cities. There are now 2489 village panchayats covering 26247 villages in Assam.[86] The 'town-committee' or nagar-somiti for small towns, 'municipal board' or pouro-sobha for medium towns and municipal corporation or pouro-nigom for the cities consist of the urban local bodies.

Assam has two big cities. The largest is Guwahati and other major cities are Silchar, Dibrugarh and Jorhat. Smaller cities are Tezpur, Nagaon, Sivasagar etc. For the revenue purposes, the districts are divided into revenue circles and mouzas; for the development projects, the districts are divided into 219 'development-blocks' and for law and order these are divided into 206 police stations or thana.[86]

Education

Main article: Education in Assam
School girls in the classroom, Lakhiganj High School, Assam
Cotton College of Gauhati University
Academic complex of IIT Guwahati
NEF Law College of Gauhati University
Jorhat Engineering College of Dibrugarh University

Assam schools are run by the Indian government or by private organisations. Medium of instruction is mainly in Assamese, English or Bengali. Most of the schools follow the state’s examination board which is called the Secondary Education Board of Assam. Almost all private schools follow the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) and Indian School Certificate (ISC) syllabuses.

Assamese language is the main medium in educational institutions but Nepali language is also taught as a major Indian language. In Guwahati and Digboi, many Jr. basic School and Jr. high School are Nepali and all the teachers are Nepali. As a major Indian language, Nepali is included by Assam State Secondary Board, Assam Higher Secondary Education Council and Gauhati University in their HSLC, higher secondary and graduation level respectively, in some junior basic and higher secondary schools and colleges, Nepali teachers and lecturers are appointed.

The capital, Guwahati, contains institutions of higher education for students of the north-eastern region. Cotton College, Guwahati, dates back to the 19th century. Assam has several institutions for tertiary education and research.

Universities, Colleges and Institutions include:

Universities

Medical Colleges

Engineering & Technological Colleges

Agriculture Colleges

Law Colleges

Research institutes present in the state include National Research Centre on Pig, (ICAR) in Guwahati,[97]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Assam
Assam historical

Assam's economy is based on agriculture and oil. Assam produces more than half of India's tea.[98] The Assam-Arakan basin holds about a quarter of the country's oil reserves, and produces about 12% of its total petroleum.[99] According to the recent estimates,[100] Assam's per capita GDP is ₹6,157 at constant prices (1993–94) and ₹10,198 at current prices; almost 40% lower than that in India.[101] According to the recent estimates,[100] per capita income in Assam has reached ₹6756 (1993–94 constant prices) in 2004–05, which is still much lower than India's.

A paddy field of Assam
A tea garden in Assam: tea is grown at elevations near sea level, giving it a malty sweetness and an earthy flavor, as opposed to the more floral aroma of highland (e.g. Darjeeling, Taiwanese) teas

Tea plantations

Main article: Assam tea
Process of making tea in Assam
This 1850 engraving shows the different stages in the process of making tea in Assam

Macro-economy

The economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness amidst plenty.[102] Despite its rich natural resources, and supplying of up to 25% of India's petroleum needs, Assam’s growth rate has not kept pace with that of India; the difference has increased rapidly since the 1970s.[103] The Indian economy grew at 6% per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000; the growth rate of Assam was only 3.3%.[104] In the Sixth Plan period, Assam experienced a negative growth rate of 3.78% when India's was positive at 6%.[103] In the post-liberalised era (after 1991), the difference widened further.

According to recent analysis, Assam’s economy is showing signs of improvement. In 2001–02, the economy grew (at 1993–94 constant prices) at 4.5%, falling to 3.4% in the next financial year.[105] During 2003–04 and 2004–05, the economy grew (at 1993–94 constant prices) at 5.5% and 5.3% respectively.[105] The advanced estimates placed the growth rate for 2005–06 at above 6%.[100] Assam's GDP in 2004 is estimated at $13 billion in current prices. Sectoral analysis again exhibits a dismal picture. The average annual growth rate of agriculture, which was 2.6% per annum over the 1980s, has fallen to 1.6% in the 1990s.[106] The manufacturing sector showed some improvement in the 1990s with a growth rate of 3.4% per annum than 2.4% in the 1980s.[106] For the past five decades, the tertiary sector has registered the highest growth rates of the other sectors, which even has slowed down in the 1990s than in the 1980s.[106]

Employment

Unemployment is one of the major problems of Assam which can be attributed to overpopulation, and a faulty education system. Every year, large numbers of students obtain higher academic degrees but because of non-availability of proportional vacancies, most of these students remain unemployed.[107][108] A number of employers hire over-qualified or efficient, but under-certified, candidates, or candidates with narrowly-defined qualifications. The problem is exacerbated by the growth in the number of technical institutes in Assam which increases the unemployed community of the State. Many job-seekers are ineligible for jobs in sectors like Railways, and Oil India by the appointment of candidates from outside Assam to those posts.[109][110]

Reduction of the unemployed has been threatened by illegal immigration from Bangladesh. This has increased the workforce without a commensurate increase in jobs. Immigrants compete with local workers for jobs at lower wages, particularly in construction, domestics, Rickshaw-pullers, and vegetable sellers.[111][112] The government has been identifying (via NRC) and deporting illegals. Continued immigration is exceeding deportation.[113][114]

Agriculture

In Assam among all the productive sectors, agriculture makes the highest contribution to its domestic sectors, accounting for more than a third of Assam’s income and employs 69% of workforce.[115] Assam's biggest contribution to the world is Assam tea. It has its own variety Camellia assamica. The state produces rice, rapeseed, mustard seed, jute, potato, sweet potato, banana, papaya, areca nut, sugarcane and turmeric.

Assam’s agriculture is yet to experience modernisation in a real sense. With implications for food security, per capita food grain production has declined in the past five decades.[116] Productivity has increased marginally, but is still low compared to highly productive regions. For instance, the yield of rice (staple food of Assam) was just 1531 kg per hectare against India’s 1927 kg per hectare in 2000–01[116] (which itself is much lower than Egypt’s 9283, US’s 7279, South Korea’s 6838, Japan’s 6635 and China’s 6131 kg per hectare in 2001[117]). On the other hand, after having strong domestic demand, and with 1.5 million hectares of inland water bodies, numerous rivers and 165 varieties of fishes,[118] fishing is still in its traditional form and production is not self-sufficient.[119]

The Assam Agricultural University is located at Jorhat, Assam.

Flood in Assam greatly affects the farmers and the families dependent on agriculture because of large-scale damage of agricultural fields and crops by flood water.[47][48]

Industry

Handlooming and handicraft continue.

Assam's proximity to some neighboring countries such as Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, benefits its trade. The major Border checkpoints through which border trade flows to Bangladesh from Assam are :- Sutarkandi (Karimganj), Dhubri, Mankachar (Dhubri) and Golokanj. To facilitate border trade with Bangladesh, Border Trade Centres have been developed at Sutarkandi and Mankachar. It has been proposed in the 11th five-year plan to set up two more Border Trade Center, one at Ledo connecting China and other at Darrang connecting Bhutan. There are several Land Custom Stations (LCS) in the state bordering Bangladesh and Bhutan to facilitate border trade.[120]

The government of India has identified some thrust areas for industrial development of Assam:

  • Petroleum and natural gas based industries
  • Industries based on locally available minerals
  • Processing of plantation crops
  • Food processing industries
  • Agri-Horticulture products
  • Agri-Horticulture products
  • Herbal products
  • Biotech products
  • Pharmaceuticals
  • Chemical and plastic based industries
  • Export oriented industries
  • Electronic and IT base industries including services sector
  • Paper making industries
  • Textiles and sericulture
  • Engineering industries
  • Cane and bamboo based industries
  • Other handicrafts industry[121]

Although, the region in the eastern periphery of India is landlocked and is linked to the mainland by the narrow Siliguri Corridor (or the Chicken's Neck) improved transport infrastructure in all the three modes — rail, road and air — and developing urban infrastructure in the cities and towns of Assam are giving a boost to the entire industrial scene. The Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport at Guwahati, although is yet to be fully functional with international flights, was the 12th busiest airport of India in 2012.[122] The cities of Guwahati[123][124] in the West and Dibrugarh[125][126] in the East with good rail,[127][128] road and air connectivity are the two important nerve centres of Assam, to be selected by Asian Development Bank for providing $200 million for improvement of urban infrastructure.[129][130]

Assam is a producer of crude oil and it accounts for about 15% of India's crude output,[131] exploited by the Assam Oil Company Ltd.,[132] and natural gas in India and is the second place in the world (after Titusville in the United States) where petroleum was discovered. Asia’s first successful mechanically drilled oil well was drilled in Makum way back in 1867. Most of the oilfields are located in the Eastern Assam region. Assam has four oil refineries in Digboi (Asia's first and world's second refinery), Guwahati, Bongaigaon and Numaligarh and with a total capacity of 7 million metric tonnes (7.7 million short tons) per annum. Asia's first refinery was set up at Digboi and discoverer of Digboi oilfield was the Assam Railways & Trading Company Limited (AR&T Co. Ltd.), a registered company of London in 1881.[133] One of the biggest public sector oil company of the country Oil India Ltd. has its plant and headquarters at Duliajan.

There are several other industries, including a chemical fertiliser plant at Namrup, petrochemical industries at Namrup and Bongaigaon, Paper mills at Jagiroad, Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd. Township Area Panchgram and Jogighopa, sugar mills at Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, Cement plant at Bokajan and Badarpur, cosmetics plant of Hindustan Unilever (HUL) at Doom Dooma, etc. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, Assam silk, and silk mills. Many of these industries are facing loss and closure due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.[134]

Tourism

Wildlife, cultural, and historical destinations have attracted visitors.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Assam
See also: Assamese cinema

Assamese culture is traditionally a hybrid one developed due to assimilation of ethno-cultural groups in the past. Therefore, both local elements or the local elements in Sanskritised forms are distinctly found.[135] The major milestones in evolution of Assamese culture are:

Dakhinpat Satra of Majuli
Presenting Gayan Bayan in Majuli, the Neo-Vaishnavite Cultural heritage of Assam

The modern culture was influenced by events in the British and the Post-British Era. The language was standardised by the American Baptist Missionaries such as Nathan Brown, Dr. Miles Bronson and local pundits such as Hemchandra Barua with the form available in the Sibsagar (Sivasagar) District (the ex-nerve centre of the Ahom Kingdom).

Increasing efforts of standardisation in the 20th century alienated the localised forms present in different areas and with the less-assimilated ethno-cultural groups (many source-cultures). However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of the richest, still developing and in true sense is a 'cultural system' with sub-systems. It is interesting that many source-cultures of Assamese cultural-system are still surviving either as sub-systems or as sister entities, e.g. the tribal minorities such as; Bodo or Karbi or Mishing. It is important to keep the broader system closer to its roots and at the same time to focus on development of the sub-systems.

Some of the common and unique cultural traits in the region are peoples' respect towards areca-nut and betel leaves, symbolic (gamosa, arnai, etc.), traditional silk garments (e.g. mekhela chador, traditional dress of Assamese women) and towards forefathers and elderly. Moreover, great hospitality and bamboo culture are common.

Symbolism

A decorative Assamese Jaapi laid over a Gamosa

Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam and is still a very important part of Assamese way of life. Various elements are being used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc. Tamulpan, Xorai and Gamosa are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture. Tamulpan (the areca nut and betel leaves) or guapan (gua from kwa) are considered along with the Gamosa (a typical woven cotton or silk cloth with embroidery) as the offers of devotion, respect and friendship. The Tamulpan-tradition is an ancient one and is being followed since time-immemorial with roots in the aboriginal Austro-Asiatic culture. Xorai is a traditionally manufactured bell-metal article of great respect and is used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers. Moreover, symbolically many ethno-cultural groups use specific clothes to portray respect and pride.

There were many other symbolic elements and designs, but are now only found in literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc. or in use today for only religious purposes. The typical designs of assamese-lion, dragon, flying-lion, etc. were used for symbolising various purposes and occasions. The archaeological sites such as the Madan Kamdev (c. 9th–10th centuries AD) exhibits mass-scale use of lions, dragon-lions and many other figures of demons to show case power and prosperity. The Vaishnava monasteries and many other architectural sites of late medieval period display the use of lions and dragons for symbolic effects.

Festivals and traditions

A Bihu dancer blowing a pepa (horn)
Tribal - Mising girls dancing during Ali Ai Ligang (Spring Festival)

There are diversified important traditional festivals in Assam. Bihu is the most important and common and celebrated all over Assam. It is the Assamese new year celebrated in April of the Gregorian calendar. Durga Puja is another festival celebrated with great enthusiasm. Muslims celebrate two Eids (Eid ul-Fitr and Eid al-Adha) with much eagerness all over Assam.

Bihu is a series of three prominent festivals. Primarily a non-religious festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points of a cultivator's life over a yearly cycle. Three Bihus, rongali or bohag, celebrated with the coming of spring and the beginning of the sowing season; kongali or kati, the barren bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are empty; and the bhogali or magh, the thanksgiving when the crops have been harvested and the barns are full. Bihu songs and Bihu dance are associated to rongali bihu. The day before the each bihu is known as 'uruka'. The first day of 'rongali bihu' is called 'Goru bihu' (the bihu of the cows), when the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with special care. In recent times the form and nature of celebration has changed with the growth of urban centres.

Bwisagu is one of the popular seasonal festival of the Bodos. Bwisagu start of the new year or age. Baisagu is a Boro word which originated from the word "Baisa" which means year or age, ang "Agu" that means starting or start.

Bushu Dima or simply Bushu is a major harvest festival of the Dimasa people. This festival is celebrated during the end of January. Officially 27 January has been declared as the day of Bushu Dima festival. The Dimasa people celebrate their festival by playing musical instruments- khram (a type of drum), muri ( a kind of huge long flute). The people dances to the different tunes called "murithai" and each dance has got its name, the prominent being the "Baidima" There are three types of Bushu celebrated among the Dimasas Jidap, Surem and Hangsou.

Moreover, there are other important traditional festivals being celebrated every year on different occasions at different places. Many of these are celebrated by different ethno-cultural groups (sub and sister cultures). Some of these are:

  • Awnkham Gwrlwi Janai
  • Chojun/Swarak
  • Sokk-erroi
  • Hacha-kekan
  • Hapsa Hatarnai

Other few yearly celebrations are Doul Utsav of Barpeta, Brahmaputra Beach Festival, Guwahati, Kaziranga Elephant Festival, Kaziranga and Dehing Patkai Festival, Lekhapani, Karbi Youth Festival of Diphu and International Jatinga Festival, Jatinga can not be forgotten. Few yearly Mela's like Jonbeel Mela, began in the 15th century by the Ahom Kings, Ambubachi Mela, Guwahati etc.

Music, Dance and Drama

Performing arts include: Ankia Naat (Onkeeya Naat), a traditional Vaishnav dance-drama (Bhaona) popular since the 15th century AD. It makes use of large masks of gods, goddesses, demons and animals and in between the plays a Sutradhar (Xutrodhar) continues to narrate the story.

Besides Bihu dance and Huchory performed during the Bohag Bihu, dance forms of tribal minorities such as; Kushan nritra of Rajbongshi's, Bagurumba and Bordoicikhla dance of Bodos, Mishing Bihu, Banjar Kekan performed during Chomangkan by Karbis, Jhumur of Tea tribes are some of the major folk dances. Sattriya (Sotriya) dance related to Vaishnav tradition is a classical form of dance. Moreover, there are several other age-old dance-forms such as Barpeta’s Bhortal Nritya, Deodhoni Nritya, Ojapali, Beula Dance, Ka Shad Inglong Kardom, Nimso Kerung, etc. The tradition of modern moving theatres is typical of Assam with immense popularity of many large theatre groups such as Kohinoor, Srimanta Sankardev, Abahan, Bhagyadevi, Hengul, Rajmahal, Itihas etc.

The indigenous folk music has influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds expression in the music of artists like Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Bishnuprasad Rabha, Parvati Prasad Baruwa, Bhupen Hazarika, Pratima Barua Pandey, Anima Choudhury, Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah, Jayanta Hazarika, Khagen Mahanta, Deepali Borthakur, Ganashilpi Dilip Sarma, Sudakshina Sarma among many others. Among the new generation, Zubeen Garg, Jitul Sonowal, Angaraag Mahanta and Joi Barua. There is an award given in the honour of Bishnuprasad Rabha for achievements in the cultural/music world of Assam by the State Government.

Cuisine

Main article: Assamese cuisine
Assamese Thali
An ethnic preparation of Ghost chilly chicken curry of Assam

Typically, an Assamese meal consists of many things as bhat (rice) with dal (lentils), masor jool (fish curry), with mangxô (meat curry) or xaak and bhaji (herbs and vegetables).

Rice is one of the main dishes of Assam, and a variety of different rices are grown and eaten in different ways: roasted, grounded, boiled or just soaked.

Fish curries made of rôu, illish, or sitôl are the most popular. Fowl such as ducks and pigeon are used in dishes while pork, chicken and mutton dishes are mainly popular among the younger generation.

Another favourite combination is luchi (fried flatbread), a curry which can be vegetarian or non-vegetarian, and asar (pickle).

The two main characteristics of a traditional meal in Assam are khar (named after its main ingredient) and the sour dish tenga. Khorika is the smoked or fired meat eaten with the meal. The various meats more commonly taken include pork, fowl, duck and goose, fish, goat, beef (among Muslim and Christian communities) and pigeon; these being often involved with religious ceremonies. Other kinds of meat include grasshoppers, locusts, silkworms, snails, eels, wild fowl and other birds, deer meat and so on.

Khorisa (fermented bamboo shoots) are used at times to flavour curries while they can also be preserved and made into pickles. Koldil (banana flower) and squash can be cooked into sabji's.

Many households still continue to brew their traditional drinks; variously known as Laupani, Xaaj, Paniyo, Jou, Joumai, Hor and so on. During the time of the traditional festivities, guests are offered these drinks. Declining then is considered socially offensive.

The food is often served in bell metal dishes and platters like Knahi, Maihang and so on.

Literature

Main article: Assamese literature
Lil Bahadur Chettri

Most literary works are written in Assamese although other local language such as Boro and Dimasa are also represented. In the 19th and 20th century, Assamese and other literature was modernised by authors including Lakshminath Bezbaroa, Birinchi Kumar Barua, Hem Barua, Dr. Mamoni Raisom Goswami, Bhabendra Nath Saikia, Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya, Hiren Bhattacharyya, Homen Borgohain, Bhabananda Deka, Rebati Mohan Dutta Choudhury, Mahim Bora, Lil Bahadur Chettri, Syed Abdul Malik, Surendranath Medhi, Hiren Gohain.

Fine arts

Main article: Fine Arts of Assam
Citra Bhagavata illustration
A page of manuscript painting from Assam; The medieval painters used locally manufactured painting materials such as the colours of hangool and haital and papers manufactured from aloewood bark

The archaic Mauryan Stupas discovered in and around Goalpara district are the earliest examples (c. 300 BC to c. 100 AD) of ancient art and architectural works. The remains discovered in Daparvatiya (Doporboteeya) archaeological site with a beautiful doorframe in Tezpur are identified as the best examples of art works in ancient Assam with influence of Sarnath School of Art of the late Gupta period.

Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. Xuanzang (7th century AD) mentions that among the Kamarupa king Bhaskaravarma's gifts to Harshavardhana there were paintings and painted objects, some of which were on Assamese silk. Many of the manuscripts such as Hastividyarnava (A Treatise on Elephants), the Chitra Bhagawata and in the Gita Govinda from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional paintings.

Traditional crafts

See also: Assam silk
Bell metal made sorai and sophura are important parts of culture
Assam Knahor Knahi

Assam has a rich tradition of crafts;, Cane and bamboo craft, bell metal and brass craft, silk and cotton weaving, toy and mask making, pottery and terracotta work, wood craft, jewellery making, and musical instruments making have remained as major traditions.[136]

Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments, construction materials, etc. Utilities and symbolic articles such as Sorai and Bota made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household.[137][138] Hajo and Sarthebari (Sorthebaary) are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several types of silks, the most prestigious are: Muga – the natural golden silk, Pat – a creamy-bright-silver coloured silk and Eri – a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Apart from Sualkuchi (Xualkuchi), the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.

Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries, pottery and terracotta work in Western Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc. in many places across the region.

Media

Print media include Assamese dailies "Dainik Asam", Dainik Janambhumi, Amar Asom, Dainik Agradoot, Asomiya Pratidin, Asomiya Khobor, Janasadharan, Niyomiya Barta, Gana Adhikar and Sankar Jyoti. Asom Bani and Sadin are Assamese weekly newspapers. English dailies of Assam include The Assam Tribune, The Sentinel, The Telegraph, The Times of India and Eastern Chronicle. Regional newspapers include Thekar, in the Karbi language has the largest circulation of any daily from Karbi Anglong district. Bodosa has the highest circulation of any Bodo daily from BTC. Dainik Jugasankha is a Bengali daily with editions from Guwahati, Silchar and Dibrugarh. Dainik Samayik Prasanga, Dainik Prantojyoti, Dainik Janakantha and Nababarta Prasanga are other prominent Bengali dailies published in the Barak Valley towns of Silchar and Karimganj. Hindi dailies include Purvanchal Prahari, Pratah Khabar and Dainik Purvoday.

Broadcasting stations of All India Radio have been established in five big cities: Dibrugarh, Guwahati, Kokrajhar, Silchar and Tezpur. Local news and music are the main priority for that station. Assam has three public service broadcasting service radio stationsat Guwahati, Dibrugarh and Silchar. Guwahati is the headquarters of a number of electronic medias like News Live, DY 365, Pratidin Time, Assam Talks and Prag.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ "Assam Population Sex Ratio in Assam Literacy rate data". Census2011.co.in. Retrieved 2012-09-22.
  2. 1 2 "Memorandum of Settlement on Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC)". South Asia Terrorism Portal. 10 February 2003. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
  3. ↑ Dixit, K. M. (August 2002). "Chicken's Neck (Editorial)". Himal South Asian. Archived from the original (– Scholar search) on 30 October 2006.
  4. ↑ Sushanta Talukdar (20 April 2012). "Assam has lead role in Look East effort: PM". The Hindu (Chennai, India). Retrieved 4 December 2012.
  5. ↑ "Prior to the thirteenth century the present region was called Kāmarūpa or, alternatively, Prāgjyotiṣapur", Lahiri, Nayanjot., Pre-Ahom Assam (Delhi 1991) p14
  6. ↑ Sukalpa Bhattacharjee, C Joshua Thomas,2013,Society,Representation and Textuality:The Critical Interface It deals with the expansion of the Mughal Empire in Bengal, Kamrup and Assam.
  7. ↑ Satish Chandra (2005), Medieval India:Fro Sultanate to the Mughals Part - II They had support of many Hindu Rajas of Jessore, Kamrup (Western Assam), Cachar, Tippera, etc.
  8. ↑ Peter Jackson,2003,The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History,P. 141, into the region of Assam the Muslims called Kamrup or Kamrud
  9. ↑ "The word 'Assamese' is an English one based on the anglicised form 'Assam' from the native word "Asam", which in its turn is connected with the Shans who invaded the Brahmaputra Valley in the 13th century." Kakati, Banikanta, Aspects of Early Assamese Literature (Gauhati University Press, 1953) p1; "Assam is the English form of 'Asama' (i.e. peerless) which is apparently a Sanskritised form of the tribal name Ahom", D C Sircar, Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa in The Comprehensive History of Assam Vol I (Guwahati, 1991) p59 cf1; Satyendra Nath Sharma, Assamese Literature (Wiesbaden : Harrassowitz, 1976) p1; "The term 'Assam' is, relatively speaking, of recent origin and traces back to the tradition of the Ahoms who entered the Brahmaputra valley in the thirteenth century", Nayanjot Lahir, Pre-Ahom Assam (Delhi 1991, based on PhD Thesis) p14; "These references show that the term 'Axom or Asom' was earlier used to mean the Shan community...Subsequently the term came to be used to mean also the territory they ruled", M Taher, Geography of Assam (Delhi, 2001) pp2-3
  10. ↑ "...but most probably Asama meaning peerless or unequalled is a latter day Sanskritisation of some earlier form like Āchām, Banikanta Kakati, Early Aspects of Assamese Literature (Gauhati, 1953) p2
  11. ↑ Satyendra Nath Sharma, Assamese Literature (Wiesbaden : Harrassowitz, 1976) p1
  12. ↑ "In Tai the root cham means "to be undefeated". With the privative Assamese affix ā the whole formation Āchām would mean undefeated.", Banikanta Kakati, Aspects of Early Assamese Literature (Gauhati University Press, 1953) p2
  13. ↑ "The Ahom domain of Upper Assam came to be known to the Dimasa and other Bodo people as Ha-Sam (the land of the Shams or Shans) in their language.", Amalendu Guha, The Ahom Political System: An Enquiry into the State Formation Process in Medieval Assam (1228-1714) in Social Scientist Vol. 11, No. 12, (1983) p24
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Barpujari, H. K. (ed.) (1990), The Comprehensive History of Assam, 1st edition, Guwahati, India: Assam Publication Board
  15. ↑ Tej Ram Sharma,1978,"Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. (1.publ.)", Page 254, Kamarupa consisted of the Western districts of the Brahmaputra valley which being the most powerful state.
  16. ↑ Suresh Kant Sharma, Usha Sharma - 2005,"Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Cutlure, ... - Volume 3", Page 248, Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms.
  17. ↑ The eastern border of Kamarupa is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in Kalika Purana) near present-day Sadiya. "...the temple of the goddess Tameshwari (Dikkaravasini) is now located at modern Sadiya about 100 miles to the northeast of Sibsagar" (Sircar 1990, pp. 63–68).
  18. ↑ The Cooch Behar State and Its Land Revenue Settlements (1903), Page 213 Naraka was not a native of the soil. He was evidently an Aryan conqueror and came from the Aryavarta.
  19. ↑ Banikanta Kakati, Assamese:Its formation and development The Shans built their kingdom and consolidated their power in Eastern Assam with the modern town of Sibsagara as their capital and brought the whole tract down to the border of the modern district of Kamrup permanently under their sway. It was towards the close of their reign that modern Kamrup came within the compass of the Shan rule.
  20. ↑ Roy, Tirthankar (2012). India in the World Economy: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 202. ISBN 978-1107009103.
  21. ↑ MacFarlane, Alan; MacFarlane, Iris (2003), Green Gold, The Empire of Tea, Ch. 6–11, Random House, London
  22. ↑ Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 225
  23. ↑ Bhuyan Dr. S.K. Tunkhungia Buranji or A History of Assam (1681–1826) 1968 page 199
  24. ↑ Barbaruah Hiteswar Ahomar-Din or A History of Assam under the Ahoms 1981 page 299
  25. ↑ Barua Gunaviram Assam Buranji or A History of Assam 2008 page 108
  26. ↑ Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 230
  27. ↑ Bhuyan Dr. S.K. Tunkhungia Buranji or A History of Assam (1681–1826) 1968 page 206
  28. ↑ Barbaruah Hiteswar Ahomar-Din or A History of Assam under the Ahoms 1981 page 320
  29. ↑ Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 231
  30. ↑ Bhuyan Dr. S.K. Tunkhungia Buranji or A History of Assam (1681–1826) 1968 page 207
  31. ↑ Barbaruah Hiteswar Ahomar-Din or A History of Assam under the Ahoms 1981 page 318
  32. ↑ Barua Gunaviram Assam Buranji or A History of Assam 2008 page 116-117
  33. ↑ Gait E.A. A History of Assam 1926 Calcutta and Shimla Thacker & Co page 232
  34. ↑ Barua Gunaviram Assam Buranji or A History of Assam 2008 page117
  35. ↑ Aitchison, C. U. ed (1931), The Treaty of Yandaboo, (A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads: Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries. Vol. XII.), Calcutta: Projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu, pp. 230–233, archived from the original on 19 October 2015
  36. ↑ Baruah, L.M. (1992). Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi, an Architect of Modern India. Gyan Publishing House. ISBN 81-212-0404-6. Retrieved 2013-11-17.
  37. ↑ Nath, Sunil (2001). "The Secessionist Insurgency and the Freedom of Minds". www.satp.org. Institute for Conflict Management. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
  38. ↑ William Cooke Taylor, A Popular History of British India. p. 505
  39. ↑ Indian Philatelists Forum (2011-06-04). "Glimpses of Modern Indian Philately: INDIAN POSTAL CIRCLES". Modernindianphilately.blogspot.in. Retrieved 2014-06-11.
  40. 1 2 Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1907, p. 46
  41. 1 2 Hazarika, Sanjoy (2003), Strangers of the Mist, Penguin Books Australia Ltd., ISBN 0-14-024052-7
  42. 1 2 Governor of Assam (8 November 1998). "Report on Illegal Migration into Assam". Archived from the original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 26 May 2007.
  43. 1 2 3 Singh, R. L. (1993), India, A Regional Geography, Varanasi, India: National Geographical Society of India
  44. ↑ "Guwahati's landscape to change with satellite towns, BRT systems". The Assam Tribune. Retrieved 4 August 2013.
  45. ↑ "Dibrugarh - Roing - Mayudia - Anini Tourist Circuit". Arunachal Tourism. Archived from the original on 6 April 2013. Retrieved 4 August 2013.
  46. ↑ Purdue University. "The Köppen Classification of Climates". Archived from the original on 5 June 2007. Retrieved 25 May 2007.
  47. 1 2 "Assam Flood Toll Rises to 13". NDTV. August 23, 2015. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
  48. 1 2 "Flood situation in Assam worsens". Hindustan Times. August 23, 2015. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
  49. ↑ Borthakur, Ahir Bhairab (15 January 2002), "Call of the wild", Down to Earth, archived from the original on 28 September 2007
  50. ↑ Birdlife International, UK. "Indo-Gangetic Grasslands" (PDF).
  51. ↑ National Mission on Bamboo Applications 2004
  52. ↑ Sharma, Pradip (April–June 2003), "An Overview on Wetlands in Assam" (PDF), ENVIS Assam, Assam Science Technology and Environment Council 2: 7, archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2006.
  53. ↑ World Heritage Centre, UNESCO. "World Heritage List".
  54. ↑ Choudhury, A.U.(1996) Survey of the white-winged wood duck and the Bengal florican in Tinsukia district & adjacent areas of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North East India, Guwahati, India. 82pp+
  55. ↑ Choudhury, A.U. (2010)The vanishing herds : the wild water buffalo. Gibbon Books, Rhino Foundation, CEPF & COA, Taiwan, Guwahati, India
  56. ↑ Choudhury, A.U. (2000)The birds of Assam. Gibbon Books & WWF-India, Guwahati, India
  57. ↑ Choudhury, A.U. (1990). Checklist of the birds of Assam. Sofia Press & Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Guwahati, India. 72 pp+
  58. ↑ Choudhury, A.U. (1997)The check list of the mammals of Assam. Gibbon Books & ASTEC, Guwahati, India
  59. ↑ ENVIS Assam (April–June 2003). "Endemic Orchids of Assam" (PDF). ENVIS Assam, Assam Science Technology and Environment Council 2: 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2006.
  60. 1 2 NEDFi & NIC-Assam. "North East India Databank". Archived from the original on 18 April 2007.
  61. ↑ Wandrey 2004, p. 17
  62. ↑ "Census Population" (PDF), Census of India (Ministry of Finance India), archived (PDF) from the original on 19 December 2008, retrieved 18 December 2008
  63. 1 2 Government of Assam 2002–03. "Statistics of Assam". Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 3 June 2007.
  64. ↑ National Commission on Population, Census of India (2006). "Population Projections for India and States 2001–2026". Archived from the original on 14 May 2007. Retrieved 15 May 2007.
  65. 1 2 Government of Assam Census 2011. "onlineassam". Retrieved 6 June 2012.
  66. ↑ cdpsindia. "centre for development and peace studies".
  67. ↑ Director of Census Operations, Census of India 2001
  68. ↑ "Muslim-Bodo mistrust exists for many decades - The Times of India". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. 2012-07-24. Retrieved 2014-06-11.
  69. ↑ "Assam govt mulls arming Muslims in Bodo areas - The Times of India". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. 2014-05-05. Retrieved 2014-06-11.
  70. ↑ "Assam violence: Four more bodies found, toll rises to 77". IBN. 8 August 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
  71. ↑ Harris, Gardiner (28 July 2012). "As Tensions in India Turn Deadly, Some Say Officials Ignored Warning Signs". The New York Times.
  72. ↑ Taher, Mohammad (1993) The Peopling of Assam and contemporary social structure in Ahmad, Aijazuddin (ed) Social Structure and Regional Development, Rawat Publications, New Delhi
  73. 1 2 "Population by religion community - 2011". Census of India, 2011. The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015.
  74. ↑ "Census 2011 data rekindles ‘demographic invasion’ fear in Assam".
  75. ↑ http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/religious-communities-census-2011-what-the-numbers-say/article7582284.ece
  76. ↑ "Bodos and their rights".
  77. ↑ "Muslim majority districts in Assam up".
  78. ↑ "Assam Muslim growth is higher in districts away from border".
  79. ↑ "Census 2011 data rekindles ‘demographic invasion’ fear in Assam".
  80. ↑ "Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages". Census of India. Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. 2001. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
  81. 1 2 "Census Reference Tables, A-Series - Total Population". Census of India. Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. 2001. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
  82. ↑ Census 2011 Non scheduled languages
  83. ↑ Morey, Stephen. 2005. The Tai languages of Assam: a grammar and texts. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
  84. ↑ "Govt announces 5 new districts". Assam Times. 15 August 2015. Retrieved 16 August 2015.
  85. 1 2 Revenue Department, Government of Assam
  86. 1 2 Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Assam. "Area of the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in Assam, 2002". Archived from the original on 6 October 2007. Retrieved 29 May 2006.
  87. ↑ "Don Bosco University - Azara - Guwahati - Welcome to Don Bosco University". Dbuniversity.ac.in. Retrieved 2012-09-22.
  88. ↑ "Assam Down Town University". adtu.in. Retrieved 2012-09-22.
  89. ↑ "Assam Women's University". Assam Women's University. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
  90. ↑ "Bodoland University website". bodolanduniversity.org.in. Retrieved 2012-09-22.
  91. ↑ "Dibrugarh University". Dibrugarh University. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
  92. ↑ "Gauhati University". Gauhati University. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
  93. ↑ "Kaziranga University". kazirangauniversity.in. Retrieved 2012-09-22.
  94. ↑ "Tezpur University". Tezpur University. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
  95. ↑ www.lgbrimh.org
  96. ↑ http://www.nits.ac.in/
  97. ↑ "National Research Centre on Pig, (ICAR) in Guwahati". Retrieved 16 October 2014.
  98. ↑ Indian Tea Association. "Tea Scenario". Retrieved 19 April 2015.
  99. ↑ U.S. Energy Information Administration. "India - Analysis". Retrieved 19 April 2015.
  100. 1 2 3 Government of Assam. "Economic Survey of Assam 2005–2006 in NEDFi, Assam Profile, NER Databank". Archived from the original on 31 December 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2007.
  101. ↑ Government of Assam. "2, Income, Employment and Poverty". Economic Survey of Assam 2001–2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003. p. 25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 February 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2007.
  102. ↑ National Commission for Women 2004
  103. 1 2 UNDP 2004, pp. 22–23
  104. ↑ UNDP 2004, p. 22
  105. 1 2 Government of Assam (2006). "Economic Survey of Assam 2004–2005 in NEDFi, Assam Profile, NER Databank". Retrieved 6 June 2007.
  106. 1 2 3 UNDP 2004, pp. 24–25
  107. ↑ "Poor infrastructure, stringent policies bottleneck for Assam’s growth". The Economic Times. July 9, 2015. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
  108. ↑ "Panel for study of unemployment problem in Assam". Zee News. October 26, 2012. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
  109. ↑ "The Assam Tribune". The Assam Tribune. October 17, 2013. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
  110. ↑ "The Assam Tribune". The Assam Tribune. January 21, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
  111. ↑ "Centre taking steps to check illegal immigration into Assam". The Economic Times. August 5, 2015. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
  112. ↑ "Soon blueprint to deport illegal Bangladeshis in Assam". Hindustan Times. December 10, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
  113. ↑ "Illegal immigration from Bangladesh a national problem". India Today. June 4, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
  114. ↑ "Leave in 15 days, BJP MPs tell illegal immigrants in Assam". Firstpost. June 2, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
  115. ↑ Government of Assam. "Economic Survey of Assam 2001–2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003". p. 32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 February 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2007.
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  117. ↑ FAO Statistics Division, 2007, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Faostat". Archived from the original (– Scholar search) on 14 November 2006. Retrieved 5 June 2006.
  118. ↑ Assam Small Farmers’ Agri-business Consortium. "Fish Species of Assam" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 May 2006. Retrieved 5 June 2006.
  119. ↑ UNDP 2004, p. 37
  120. ↑ "Indian state: Assam". Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
  121. ↑ "Indian state: Assam, Thrust Areas". Ministry of External Affairs, Govt. of India.
  122. ↑ List of busiest airports in India by passenger traffic
  123. ↑ "GMC". Guwahati Municipal Corporation. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013.
  124. ↑ "Guwahati". IndiaUnveiled.
  125. ↑ "Dibrugarh Municipality". Dibrugarh Municipal Board. Archived from the original on 1 September 2014.
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  128. ↑ "Trains from Dibrugarh". Indiarailinfo.
  129. ↑ "ADB $200 Million Loan to Upgrade Services in Key Cities of India's Assam State". Asian Development Bank.
  130. ↑ "$81-million ADB loan for State urban infrastructure". The Assam Tribune. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
  131. ↑ Government of Assam (18 February 2007). "Available Resources in Assam". Government of Assam. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
  132. ↑ "Assamco". assamco.com. Retrieved 2012-09-22.
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  138. ↑ Nath, T.K., Bamboo Cane and Assam, Guwahati, India: Industrial Development Bank of India, Small Industries Development Bank of India

References

Further reading

Online Books and material
Language and literature
  • Bara, Mahendra (1981), The Evolution of the Assamese Script, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha 
  • Barpujari, H. K. (1983), Amerikan Michanerisakal aru Unabimsa Satikar Asam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha 
  • Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1965), History of Assamese Literature, Guwahati: East-West Centre Press 
  • Barua, Hem (1965), Assamese Literature, New Delhi: National Book Trust 
  • Brown, William Barclay (1895), An Outline Grammar of the Deori Chutiya Language Spoken in Upper Assam with an Introduction, Illustrative Sentences, and Short Vocabulary, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office 
  • Deka, Bhabananda (1961), Industrialisation of Assam, Guwahati: Gopal Das 
  • Dhekial Phukan, Anandaram 1829–1859 (1977), Anandaram Dhekiyal Phukanar Racana Samgrah, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall 
  • Endle, Sidney (1884), Outline of the Kachari (Baro) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam, Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press 
  • Gogoi, Lila (1972), Sahitya-Samskriti-Buranji, Dibrugarh: New Book Stall 
  • Gogoi, Lila (1986), The Buranjis, Historical Literature of Assam, New Delhi: Omsons Publications 
  • Goswami, Praphulladatta (1954), Folk-Literature of Assam, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam 
  • Gurdon, Philip Richard Thornhagh (1896), Some Assamese Proverbs, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office, ISBN 1-104-30633-6 
  • Kakati, Banikanta (1959), Aspects of Early Assamese Literature, Guwahati: Gauhati University 
  • Kay, S. P. (1904), An English-Mikir Vocabulary, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office 
  • Medhi, Kaliram (1988), Assamese Grammar and Origin of the Assamese Language, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board 
  • Miles, Bronson (1867), A Dictionary in Assamese and English, Sibsagar, Assam: American Baptist Mission Press 
  • Morey, Stephen (2005), The Tai languages of Assam : a grammar and texts, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, ISBN 0-85883-549-5 
History
  • Antrobus, H. (1957), A History of the Assam Company, Edinburgh: Private Printing by T. and A. Constable 
  • Barabaruwa, Hiteswara 1876–1939 (1981), Ahomar Din, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board 
  • Barooah, Nirode K. (1970), David Scott In North-East India, 1802–1831, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers 
  • Barua, Harakanta 1813–1900 (1962), Asama Buranji, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam 
  • Barpujari, H. K. (1963), Assam in the Days of the Company, 1826–1858, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall 
  • Barpujari, H. K. (1977), Political History of Assam. Department for the Preparation of Political History of Assam, Guwahati: Government of Assam 
  • Barua, Kanak Lal, An Early History of Kamarupa, From the Earliest Time to the Sixteenth Century, Guwahati: Lawyers Book Stall 
  • Barua, Kanak Lal, Studies in the Early History of Assam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha 
  • Baruah, Swarna Lata (1993), Last days of Ahom monarchy : a history of Assam from 1769–1826, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers 
  • Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1949), Anglo-Assamese Relations, 1771–1826, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam 
  • Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1947), Annals of the Delhi Badshahate, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam 
  • Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1957), Atan Buragohain and His Times, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall 
  • Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1962), Deodhai Asam Buranji, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies 
  • Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1928), Early British Relations with Assam, Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press 
  • Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1947), Lachit Barphukan and His Times, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam 
  • Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1964), Satasari Asama Buranji, Guwahati: Gauhati University 
  • Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1975), Swargadew Rajeswarasimha, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board 
  • Buchanan, Francis Hamilton 1762–1829 (1963), An Account of Assam, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies 
  • Duara Barbarua, Srinath (1933), Tungkhungia Buranji, Bombay: H. Milford, Oxford University Press 
  • Gait, Edward Albert 1863–1950 (1926), A History of Assam, Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co. 
  • Gogoi, Padmeswar (1968), The Tai and the Tai Kingdoms, Guwahati: Gauhati University 
  • Guha, Amalendu (1983), The Ahom Political System, Calcutta: Centre for Studies in Social Sciences 
  • Hunter, William Wilson 1840–1900 (1879), A Statistical Account of Assam, London: Trubner & Co. 
Tradition and Culture
  • Barkath, Sukumar (1976), Hastibidyarnnara Sarasamgraha (English & Assamese), 18th Century, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board 
  • Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1969), A Cultural History of Assam, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall 
  • Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1960), Sankardeva, Guwahati: Assam Academy for Cultural Relations 
  • Gandhiya, Jayakanta (1988), Huncari, Mukali Bihu, aru Bihunac, Dibrugarh 
  • Goswami, Praphulladatta (1960), Ballads and Tales of Assam, Guwahati: Gauhati University 
  • Goswami, Praphulladatta (1988), Bohag Bihu of Assam and Bihu Songs, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board 
  • Mahanta, Pona (1985), Western Influence on Modern Assamese Drama, Delhi: Mittal Publications 
  • Medhi, Kaliram (1978), Studies in the Vaisnava Literature and Culture of Assam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha 

External links

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Assam.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Assam.


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