Mexico

Mexico (Spanish: México [ˈmexiko]), officially the United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos, listen ),^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12] is a federal republic located in North America. The country is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize and the Caribbean Sea; and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico.^[13] Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi),^[12] Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the 13th largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 120 million,^[14] it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world and the second most populous country in Latin America. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, its capital and largest city.

Pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colony's Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by economic instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War (1846–48) led to the territorial cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory, to the United States. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship occurred through the 19th century. The dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system.

Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity. The Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) partners, especially the United States.^[15]^[16] Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), joining in 1994. It is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank^[17] and a newly industrialized country by several analysts.^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21] By 2050, Mexico could become the world's fifth or seventh largest economy.^[22]^[23] The country is considered both a regional power and middle power,^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27] and is often identified as an emerging global power.^[28] Due to its rich culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas and sixth in the world by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.^[29]^[30]^[31] In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, with 32.1 million international arrivals.^[32]^[33] Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and is an observer of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie since 2014.

Etymology

Main article: Name of Mexico

Image of Mexico-Tenochtitlan from the Codex Mendoza

Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely,^[34] the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica, and surrounding territories. This became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence (compare Latium). It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley which became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result, or vice versa. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital, Mexico City. This was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan.

Traditionally, the name Tenochtitlan was thought to come from Nahuatl tetl [ˈtetɬ] ("rock") and nōchtli [ˈnoːtʃtɬi] ("prickly pear") and is often thought to mean "Among the prickly pears [growing among] rocks". However, one attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as "the Bancroft dialogues" suggests the second vowel was short, so that the true etymology remains uncertain.^[35]

The suffix -co is the Nahuatl locative, making the word a place name. Beyond that, the etymology is uncertain. It has been suggested that it is derived from Mextli or Mēxihtli, a secret name for the god of war and patron of the Mexica, Huitzilopochtli, in which case Mēxihco means "Place where Huitzilopochtli lives".^[36] Another hypothesis suggests that Mēxihco derives from a portmanteau of the Nahuatl words for "Moon" (Mētztli) and navel (xīctli).^[37] This meaning ("Place at the Center of the Moon") might refer to Tenochtitlan's position in the middle of Lake Texcoco. The system of interconnected lakes, of which Texcoco formed the center, had the form of a rabbit, which the Mesoamericans pareidolically associated with the Moon. Still another hypothesis suggests that the word is derived from Mēctli, the goddess of maguey.^[37]

The name of the city-state was transliterated to Spanish as México with the phonetic value of the letter 'x' in Medieval Spanish, which represented the voiceless postalveolar fricative [ʃ]. This sound, as well as the voiced postalveolar fricative [ʒ], represented by a 'j', evolved into a voiceless velar fricative [x] during the 16th century. This led to the use of the variant Méjico in many publications in Spanish, most notably in Spain, whereas in Mexico and most other Spanish–speaking countries México was the preferred spelling. In recent years the Real Academia Española, which regulates the Spanish language, determined that both variants are acceptable in Spanish but that the normative recommended spelling is México.^[38] The majority of publications in all Spanish-speaking countries now adhere to the new norm, even though the alternative variant is still occasionally used. In English, the 'x' in Mexico represents neither the original nor the current sound, but the consonant cluster [ks].

The official name of the country has changed as the form of government has changed. On three occasions (1325–1521, 1821–1823, and 1863–1867), the country was known as Imperio Mexicano (Mexican Empire). All three federal constitutions (1824, 1857 and 1917, the current constitution) used the name Estados Unidos Mexicanos^[39]—or the variant Estados-Unidos Mexicanos,^[40] all of which have been translated as "United Mexican States". The phrase República Mexicana, "Mexican Republic", was used in the 1836 Constitutional Laws.^[41] On November 22, 2012, president Felipe Calderón sent to the Mexican Congress a piece of legislation to change the country's name officially to simply Mexico. To be implemented, the bill needed to be passed by both houses of Congress, as well as a majority of Mexico's 31 State legislatures. As this legislation was proposed just a week before Calderón turned power over to Enrique Peña Nieto, Calderón's critics saw this as a symbolic gesture.^[42]

History

Main article: History of Mexico

Chichen Itza

Cuauhxicalli in the shape of an eagle, from the Templo Mayor

Ancient cultures

Main article: Pre-Columbian Mexico

The earliest human artifacts in Mexico are chips of stone tools found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years ago.^[43] Mexico is the site of the domestication of maize, tomato and beans, which produced an agricultural surplus. This enabled the transition from paleo-Indian hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages beginning around 5000 BCE.^[44]

In the subsequent formative eras, maize cultivation and cultural traits such as a mythological and religious complex, and a vigesimal numeric system, were diffused from the Mexican cultures to the rest of the Mesoamerican culture area.^[45] In this period, villages became more dense in terms of population, becoming socially stratified with an artisan class, and developing into chiefdoms. The most powerful rulers had religious and political power, organizing construction of large ceremonial centers developed.^[46]

Among the earliest complex civilizations in Mexico was the Olmec culture, which flourished on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BCE. Olmec cultural traits diffused through Mexico into other formative-era cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca and the Valley of Mexico. The formative period saw the spread of distinct religious and symbolic traditions, as well as artistic and architectural complexes.^[47]

In the subsequent pre-classical period, the Maya and Zapotec civilizations developed complex centers at Calakmul and Monte Albán, respectively. During this period the first true Mesoamerican writing systems were developed in the Epi-Olmec and the Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic Maya Hieroglyphic script.^[48]

In Central Mexico, the height of the classic period saw the ascendancy of Teotihuacan, which formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area as well as north. Teotihuacan, with a population of more than 150,000 people, had some of the largest pyramidal structures in the pre-Columbian Americas.^[49] After the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 CE, competition ensued between several important political centers in central Mexico such as Xochicalco and Cholula. At this time, during the Epi-Classic, Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages.

Post-classic period (700–1519 AD)

A view from the Tlatelolco markets into Mexico-Tenochtitlan, one of the largest cities in the world at the time.

During the early post-classic, Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec, and the lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán. Towards the end of the post-Classic period, the Mexica established dominance.

Alexander von Humboldt originated the modern usage of "Aztec" as a collective term applied to all the people linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Mexica state and Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān, the Triple Alliance. In 1843, with the publication of the work of William H. Prescott, it was adopted by most of the world, including 19th-century Mexican scholars who considered it a way to distinguish present-day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans. This usage has been the subject of debate since the late 20th century.^[50]

The Aztec empire was an informal or hegemonic empire because it did not exert supreme authority over the conquered lands; it was satisfied with the payment of tributes from them. It was a discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories were connected; for example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in direct contact with the center. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire was demonstrated by their restoration of local rulers to their former position after their city-state was conquered. The Aztec did not interfere in local affairs, as long as the tributes were paid.^[51]

The Aztec of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mexico.^[52] The Aztec were noted for practicing human sacrifice on a large scale. Along with this practice, they avoided killing enemies on the battlefield. Their warring casualty rate was far lower than that of their Spanish counterparts, whose principal objective was immediate slaughter during battle.^[53] This distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition of human sacrifice ended with the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Over the next centuries Mexican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule.^[54]

Spanish conquest (1519)

Further information: Spanish conquest of Mexico

Hernán Cortés and La Malinche meet Moctezuma II.

Storming of the Teocalli by Cortez and his troops. Emanuel Leutze. Painting, 1848

The Spanish first learned of Mexico during the Juan de Grijalva expedition of 1518. The natives kept "repeating: Colua, Colua, and Mexico, Mexico, but we [explorers] did not know what Colua or Mexico meant", until encountering Montezuma's governor at the mouth of the Rio de las Banderas.^[55]^:33–36 The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire began in February 1519 when Hernán Cortés arrived at the port in Veracruz with ca. 500 conquistadores. After taking control of that city, he moved on to the Aztec capital. In his search for gold and other riches, Cortés decided to invade and conquer the Aztec empire.^[56]

When the Spaniards arrived, the ruler of the Aztec empire was Moctezuma II, who was later killed. His successor and brother Cuitláhuac took control of the Aztec empire, but was among the first to fall from the first smallpox epidemic in the area a short time later.^[57] Unintentionally introduced by Spanish conquerors, among whom smallpox was endemic, the infectious disease ravaged Mesoamerica in the 1520s. It killed more than 3 million natives as they had no immunity.^[58] Other sources, however, mentioned that the death toll of the Aztecs might have reached 15 million (out of a population of less than 30 million) although such a high number conflicts with the 350,000 Aztecs who ruled an empire of 5 million or 10 million.^[59] Severely weakened, the Aztec empire was easily defeated by Cortés and his forces on his second return with the help of state of Tlaxcala whose population estimate was 300,000.^[60] The native population declined 80-90% by 1600 to 1-2.5 million. Any population estimate of pre-Columbian Mexico is bound to be a guess but 8-12 million is often suggested for the area encompassed by the modern nation.

Smallpox was a devastating disease: it generally killed Aztecs but not Spaniards, who as Europeans had already been exposed to it in their cities for centuries and therefore had developed acquired immunity.^[61] The deaths caused by smallpox are believed to have triggered a rapid growth of Christianity in Mexico and the Americas. At first, the Aztecs believed the epidemic was a punishment from an angry god, but they later accepted their fate and no longer resisted the Spanish rule.^[62] Many of the surviving Aztecs believed that smallpox could be credited to the superiority of the Christian god, which resulted in their acceptance of Catholicism and yielding to the Spanish rule throughout Mexico.^[63]

The territory became part of the Spanish Empire under the name of New Spain. Mexico City was systematically rebuilt by Cortés following the Fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. Much of the identity, traditions and architecture of Mexico developed during the 300-year colonial period.^[64]

Colonial period (1519–1821)

The capture of Tenochtitlan marked the beginning of a 300-year-long colonial period, during which Mexico was known as "New Spain".

Period of the conquest (1521–1650)

Contrary to a widespread misconception, Spain did not conquer all of the Aztec Empire when Cortes took Tenochtitlan. It required another two centuries to complete the conquest: rebellions broke out within the old empire and wars continued with other native peoples. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, it took the Spaniards decades of sporadic warfare to subdue the rest of Mesoamerica. Particularly fierce was the Chichimeca War (1576–1606) and the Tepehuán Revolt (1616–1620) in the north.

Economics. The Council of Indies and the mendicant religious, which arrived in Mesoamerica as early as 1524, labored to generate capital for the crown of Spain and convert the Indian populations to Catholicism. During this period and the following Colonial periods, the efforts of the mendicant friars resulted in religious syncretism which combined the Pre-Hispanic cultures with Spanish socio-religious concepts.

Equestrian statue of Charles IV in Mexico City, the king was the maximum authority of the Viceroyalty of New Spain

The result was mixed culture in multi-ethnic State that relied on the "repartimiento" system of peasant "Republics of Indians" which performed the work. The pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican system was replaced by the encomienda feudal-style system of Spain probably adapted to the pre-Hispanic tradition. This in turn was replaced in the 19th century by a debt-based inscription of labor. Its burden was a catalyst for political revitalization movements and prompted the revolution that ended colonial New Spain in 1821.

Evolution of the Race. During the three centuries of colonial rule, fewer than 700,000 Spaniards, most of them men, settled in Mexico. The settlers intermarried with indigenous women, fathering the mixed race (mestizo) descendants who today constitute the great majority of Mexico's population.

The colonial period (1650–1821)

Portrait of Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, oil on canvas, 1772.

During this period, Mexico was part of the much larger Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included Cuba, Puerto Rico, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, Florida, the southwestern United States and the Philippines. Spain during the 16th century focused its energies on areas with dense populations that had produced Pre-Columbian civilizations, since these areas could provide the settlers with a disciplined labor force and a population to catechize.

Territories populated by nomadic peoples were hard to conquer and hold. Europeans were a low percentage of the population, from 100,000 in 1600 of 2 million, perhaps only 5% of 4 million by 1700, though 1 million of 8 million population by 1800 due to natural increase and immigration from Spain. The 18th century sees a great increase in the percentage of mestizos (The Penguin Atlas of World Population History, pp. 291–92). The Spanish explored a good part of North America, even seeking the fabled "El Dorado." They made no concerted effort to settle the northern desert regions in what is now the United States until the end of the 16th century (Santa Fe, 1598).

Colonial law with Spanish roots was introduced and attached to native customs creating a hierarchy between local jurisdiction (the Cabildos) and the Crown, whereby upper administrative offices were closed to the natives, even those of pure Spanish blood. Administration was based on the racial separation of the population among "Republics" of Spaniards, Indians and Mestizos, autonomous and directly dependent on the king himself.

From an economic point of view, New Spain was administered principally for the benefit of the Empire and its military and defensive efforts. Mexico provided more than half of the Empire's taxes and supported the administration of all North and Central America. Competition with Spain was discouraged to the extent that activities like cultivation of grapes and olives, introduced by Cortez himself, was banned out of fear that these crops would compete with Spain's.

In order to protect Mexico from the attacks of English, French and Dutch pirates and protect the Crown's monopoly of revenue only two ports were open to foreign trade—Veracruz on the Atlantic and Acapulco on the Pacific. The pirates attacked, plundered and ravaged several cities like Campeche (1557), Veracruz (1568) and Alvarado (1667).

Education was encouraged by the Crown from the very beginning. Mexico boasts the first primary school (Texcoco, 1523), first university (1551) and the first printing house (1524) in the Americas. Indigenous languages were studied mainly by the religious orders during the first centuries. They became official languages in the so-called Republic of Indians to be outlawed and ignored after independence by the prevailing Spanish-speaking creoles.

Mexico produced important cultural achievements during the colonial period, like the literature of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz and Ruiz de Alarcón, as well as cathedrals, civil monuments, forts and colonial cities such as Puebla, Mexico City, Querétaro, Zacatecas and others, today part of Unesco's World Heritage.

The syncretism between indigenous and Spanish cultures in New Spain gave birth to many of today's Mexican cultural traits like tequila (first distilled in the 16th century), mariachi (18th), jarabe (17th), charros (17th) and Mexican cuisine – a mixture of European and indigenous ingredients and techniques.

Independence from Spain (1821)

Main article: Mexican War of Independence

The Territorial evolution of Mexico after independence, noting losses to the US (red, white and orange), Chiapas annexed from Guatemala (blue), the annexation of the Republic of Yucatan (red) and the secession of Central America (purple)

On September 16, 1810, a "loyalist revolt" against the ruling Junta was declared by priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, in the small town of Dolores, Guanajuato.^[65] The first insurgent group was formed by Hidalgo, the Spanish viceregal army captain Ignacio Allende, the militia captain Juan Aldama and "La Corregidora" Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were captured and executed by firing squad in Chihuahua, on July 31, 1811. Following his death, the leadership was assumed by priest José María Morelos, who occupied key southern cities.

In 1813 the Congress of Chilpancingo was convened and, on November 6, signed the "Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America". Morelos was captured and executed on December 22, 1815.

In subsequent years, the insurgency was near collapse, but in 1820 Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent an army under the criollo general Agustín de Iturbide against the troops of Vicente Guerrero. Instead, Iturbide approached Guerrero to join forces, and on August 24, 1821 representatives of the Spanish Crown and Iturbide signed the "Treaty of Córdoba" and the "Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire", which recognized the independence of Mexico under the terms of the "Plan of Iguala".

Birth of Mexico (1821)

Territorial losses and Juárez reforms (1821-1876)

Emperor Agustin I

President Benito Juárez

Agustín de Iturbide immediately proclaimed himself emperor of the First Mexican Empire. A revolt against him in 1823 established the United Mexican States. In 1824, a Republican Constitution was drafted and Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of the newly born country. In 1829 president Guerrero abolished slavery.^[66] The first decades of the post-independence period were marked by economic instability, which led to the Pastry War in 1836. There was constant strife between liberales, supporters of a federal form of government, and conservadores, who proposed a hierarchical form of government.

During this period, the frontier borderlands to the north became quite isolated from the government in Mexico City, and its monopolistic economic policies caused suffering. With limited trade, the people had difficulty meeting tax payments and resented the central government's actions in collecting customs. Resentment built up from California to Texas. Both the mission system and the presidios had collapsed after the Spanish withdrew from the colony, causing great disruption especially in Alta California and New Mexico. The people in the borderlands had to raise local militias to protect themselves from hostile Native Americans. These areas developed in different directions from the center of the country.^[67]

Wanting to stabilize and develop the frontier, Mexico encouraged immigration into present-day Texas, as they were unable to persuade people from central Mexico to move into those areas. They allowed for religious freedom for the new settlers, who were primarily Protestant English speakers from the United States. Within several years, the Anglos far outnumbered the Tejano in the area. Itinerant traders traveled through the area, working by free market principles. The Tejano grew more separate from the government and due to its neglect, many supported the idea of independence and joined movements to that end, collaborating with the English-speaking Americans.^[67]

General Antonio López de Santa Anna, a centralist and two-time dictator, approved the Siete Leyes in 1836, a radical amendment that institutionalized the centralized form of government. When he suspended the 1824 Constitution, civil war spread across the country. Three new governments declared independence: the Republic of Texas, the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán.

Texas successfully achieved independence as a republic in 1836 and joined the United States. A border dispute between the US and Mexico led to the Mexican–American War, which began in 1846 and lasted for two years. Many Southerners intended that slavery should be extended to the west in these newly acquired territories but the United States generally would not permit it, except in Texas. The War was settled via the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico was forced to give up more than one-third of its land to the U.S., including Alta California, New Mexico, and the disputed parts of Texas. A much smaller transfer of territory in what is today southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico—known as the Gadsden Purchase—occurred in 1854.^[68]

The Caste War of Yucatán, the Mayan uprising that began in 1847, was one of the most successful modern Native American revolts.^[69]^[70] Maya rebels, or Cruzob, maintained relatively independent enclaves in the peninsula until the 1930s.^[71]

Dissatisfaction with Santa Anna's return to power led to the liberal "Plan of Ayutla", initiating an era known as La Reforma. The new Constitution drafted in 1857 established a secular state, federalism as the form of government, and several freedoms. As the conservadores refused to recognize it, the Reform War began in 1858, during which both groups had their own governments. The war ended in 1861 with victory by the Liberals, led by president Benito Juárez, who was Amerindian.

In the 1860s Mexico was occupied by France, which established the Second Mexican Empire under the rule of the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria with support from the Roman Catholic clergy and the conservadores. The latter switched sides and joined the liberales. Maximilian surrendered, was tried on June 14, 1867, and was executed a few days later on June 19.

Porfiriato (1876–1910)

Porfirio Díaz, a republican general during the French intervention, ruled Mexico from 1876 to 1880 and then from 1884 to 1911 in five consecutive reelections, period known as the Porfiriato, characterized by remarkable economic achievements, investments in the arts and sciences, but also of economic inequality and political repression.

Mexican Revolution (1910–29)

Further information: Mexican Revolution

Francisco I. Madero with Emiliano Zapata, in Cuernavaca during the Mexican Revolution.

President Díaz announced in 1908 that he would retire in 1911, resulting in the development of new coalitions. But then he ran for reelection anyway and in a show of U.S. support, Díaz and William Howard Taft planned a summit in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, for October 16, 1909, an historic first meeting between a Mexican and a U.S. president and also the first time an American president would cross the border into Mexico.^[72] Both sides agreed that the disputed Chamizal strip connecting El Paso to Ciudad Juárez would be considered neutral territory with no flags present during the summit, but the meeting focused attention on this territory and resulted in assassination threats and other serious security concerns.^[72]

On the day of the summit, Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, and Private C.R. Moore, a Texas Ranger, discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route, and they disarmed the assassin within only a few feet of Díaz and Taft.^[72] Both presidents were unharmed and the summit was held.^[72] Díaz was re-elected in 1910, but alleged electoral fraud forced him into exile in France and sparked the 1910 Mexican Revolution, initially led by Francisco I. Madero.

Madero was elected president but overthrown and murdered in a coup d'état two years later directed by conservative general Victoriano Huerta. That event re-ignited the civil war, involving figures such as Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata, who formed their own forces. A third force, the constitutional army led by Venustiano Carranza managed to bring an end to the war, and radically amended the 1857 Constitution to include many of the social premises and demands of the revolutionaries into what was eventually called the 1917 Constitution. It is estimated that the war killed 900,000 of the 1910 population of 15 million.^[73]^[74]

Assassinated in 1920, Carranza was succeeded by another revolutionary hero, Álvaro Obregón, who in turn was succeeded by Plutarco Elías Calles. Obregón was reelected in 1928 but assassinated before he could assume power. Although this period is usually referred to as the Mexican Revolution, it might also be termed a civil war since president Díaz (1909) narrowly escaped assassination and presidents Francisco I. Madero (1913), Venustiano Carranza (1920), Álvaro Obregón (1928), and former revolutionary leaders Emiliano Zapata (1919) and Pancho Villa (1923) all were assassinated during this period.

One-party rule (1929–2000)

In 1929, Calles founded the National Revolutionary Party (PNR), later renamed the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), and started a period known as the Maximato, which ended with the election of Lázaro Cárdenas, who implemented many economic and social reforms. This included the Mexican oil expropriation in March 1938, which nationalized the U.S. and Anglo-Dutch oil company known as the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company. This movement would result in the creation of the state-owned Mexican oil company known as Pemex. This sparked a diplomatic crisis with the countries whose citizens had lost businesses by Cárdenas' radical measure, but since then the company has played an important role in the economic development of Mexico.

Students in a burned bus during the protests of 1968.

Between 1940 and 1980, Mexico remained a poor country but experienced substantial economic growth that some historians call the "Mexican miracle".^[75] Although the economy continued to flourish for some, social inequality remained a factor of discontent. Moreover, the PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive in what is now referred to as 'Mexico's dirty war'^[76] (see the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre,^[77] which claimed the life of around 300 protesters based on conservative estimates and as many as 800 protesters).^[78]

Electoral reforms and high oil prices followed the administration of Luis Echeverría,^[79]^[80] mismanagement of these revenues led to inflation and exacerbated the 1982 Crisis. That year, oil prices plunged, interest rates soared, and the government defaulted on its debt. President Miguel de la Madrid resorted to currency devaluations which in turn sparked inflation.

In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in PRI's monopolistic position. In Baja California, Ernesto Ruffo Appel was elected as governor. In 1988, alleged electoral fraud prevented the leftist candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas from winning the national presidential elections, giving Carlos Salinas de Gortari the presidency and leading to massive protests in Mexico City.^[81]

NAFTA signing ceremony, October 1992. From left to right: (standing) president Carlos Salinas de Gortari, president George H. W. Bush (U.S.) and prime minister Brian Mulroney (Canada); (seated) Jaime Serra Puche, Carla Hills (U.S.) and Michael Wilson (Canada)

Salinas embarked on a program of neoliberal reforms which fixed the exchange rate, controlled inflation and culminated with the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which came into effect on January 1, 1994. The same day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) started a two-week-long armed rebellion against the federal government, and has continued as a non-violent opposition movement against neoliberalism and globalization.

End of one-party rule (2000–present)

In December 1994, a month after Salinas was succeeded by Ernesto Zedillo, the Mexican economy collapsed, with a rapid rescue package authorized by the U.S. President, Bill Clinton, and major macroeconomic reforms started by President Zedillo, the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% by the end of 1999.^[82]

In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposition National Action Party (PAN). In the 2006 presidential election, Felipe Calderón from the PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow margin over leftist politician Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). López Obrador, however, contested the election and pledged to create an "alternative government".^[83]

After twelve years, in 2012, the PRI won the Presidency again with the election of Enrique Peña Nieto, the governor of the State of Mexico from 2005-2011. However, he won with only a plurality of about 38%, and did not have a legislative majority.^[84]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Mexico

Mexico from space

Mexico map of Köppen climate classification.

Mexico is located between latitudes 14° and 33°N, and longitudes 86° and 119°W in the southern portion of North America. Almost all of Mexico lies in the North American Plate, with small parts of the Baja California peninsula on the Pacific and Cocos Plates. Geophysically, some geographers include the territory east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (around 12% of the total) within Central America.^[85] Geopolitically, however, Mexico is entirely considered part of North America, along with Canada and the United States.^[86]

Mexico's total area is 1,972,550 km² (761,606 sq mi), making it the world's 14th largest country by total area, and includes approximately 6,000 km² (2,317 sq mi) of islands in the Pacific Ocean (including the remote Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands), Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and Gulf of California. From its farthest land points, Mexico is a little over 2,000 mi (3,219 km) in length.

On its north, Mexico shares a 3,141 km (1,952 mi) border with the United States. The meandering Río Bravo del Norte (known as the Rio Grande in the United States) defines the border from Ciudad Juárez east to the Gulf of Mexico. A series of natural and artificial markers delineate the United States-Mexican border west from Ciudad Juárez to the Pacific Ocean. On its south, Mexico shares an 871 km (541 mi) border with Guatemala and a 251 km (156 mi) border with Belize.

Mexico is crossed from north to south by two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental, which are the extension of the Rocky Mountains from northern North America. From east to west at the center, the country is crossed by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt also known as the Sierra Nevada. A fourth mountain range, the Sierra Madre del Sur, runs from Michoacán to Oaxaca.^[87]

As such, the majority of the Mexican central and northern territories are located at high altitudes, and the highest elevations are found at the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt: Pico de Orizaba (5,700 m or 18,701 ft), Popocatepetl (5,462 m or 17,920 ft) and Iztaccihuatl (5,286 m or 17,343 ft) and the Nevado de Toluca (4,577 m or 15,016 ft). Three major urban agglomerations are located in the valleys between these four elevations: Toluca, Greater Mexico City and Puebla.^[87]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Mexico

The Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the twenty-fourth parallel experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months. South of the twenty-fourth parallel, temperatures are fairly constant year round and vary solely as a function of elevation. This gives Mexico one of the world's most diverse weather systems.

Areas south of the 24th parallel with elevations up to 1,000 m (3,281 ft) (the southern parts of both coastal plains as well as the Yucatán Peninsula), have a yearly median temperature between 24 to 28 °C (75.2 to 82.4 °F). Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with only a 5 °C (9 °F) difference between winter and summer median temperatures. Both Mexican coasts, except for the south coast of the Bay of Campeche and northern Baja, are also vulnerable to serious hurricanes during the summer and fall. Although low-lying areas north of the 24th parallel are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly temperature averages (from 20 to 24 °C or 68.0 to 75.2 °F) because of more moderate conditions during the winter.

Many large cities in Mexico are located in the Valley of Mexico or in adjacent valleys with altitudes generally above 2,000 m (6,562 ft). This gives them a year-round temperate climate with yearly temperature averages (from 16 to 18 °C or 60.8 to 64.4 °F) and cool nighttime temperatures throughout the year.

Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dry climate with sporadic rainfall while parts of the tropical lowlands in the south average more than 2,000 mm (78.7 in) of annual precipitation. For example, many cities in the north like Monterrey, Hermosillo, and Mexicali experience temperatures of 40 °C (104 °F) or more in summer. In the Sonoran Desert temperatures reach 50 °C (122 °F) or more.

In 2012, Mexico passed a comprehensive climate change bill, a first in the developing world, that has set a goal for the country to generate 35% of its energy from clean energy sources by 2024, and to cut emissions by 50% by 2050, from the level found in 2000.^[88]^[89]

Biodiversity

The jaguar, a native mammal of Mexico

Mexico is one of the 17 megadiverse countries of the world. With over 200,000 different species, Mexico is home of 10–12% of the world's biodiversity.^[90] Mexico ranks first in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 known species, second in mammals with 438 species, fourth in amphibians with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species.^[91] Mexico is also considered the second country in the world in ecosystems and fourth in overall species.^[92] Approximately 2,500 species are protected by Mexican legislations.^[92]

In 2002, Mexico had the second fastest rate of deforestation in the world, second only to Brazil.^[93] The government has taken another initiative in the late 1990s to broaden the people's knowledge, interest and use of the country's esteemed biodiversity, through the Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad.

In Mexico, 170,000 square kilometres (65,637 sq mi) are considered "Protected Natural Areas." These include 34 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67 national parks, 4 natural monuments (protected in perpetuity for their aesthetic, scientific or historical value), 26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource protection (conservation of soil, hydrological basins and forests) and 17 sanctuaries (zones rich in diverse species).^[90]

The discovery of the Americas brought to the rest of the world many widely used food crops and edible plants. Some of Mexico's native culinary ingredients include: chocolate, avocado, tomato, maize, vanilla, guava, chayote, epazote, camote, jícama, nopal, zucchini, tejocote, huitlacoche, sapote, mamey sapote, many varieties of beans, and an even greater variety of chiles, such as the habanero and the jalapeño. Most of these names come from indigenous languages like Nahuatl.

Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has also been a frequent site of bioprospecting by international research bodies.^[94] The first highly successful instance being the discovery in 1947 of the tuber "Barbasco" (Dioscorea composita) which has a high content of diosgenin, revolutionizing the production of synthetic hormones in the 1950s and 1960s and eventually leading to the invention of combined oral contraceptive pills.^[95]

Government and politics

Government

Main article: Federal government of Mexico

Enrique Peña Nieto, President of Mexico.

The United Mexican States are a federation whose government is representative, democratic and republican based on a presidential system according to the 1917 Constitution. The constitution establishes three levels of government: the federal Union, the state governments and the municipal governments. According to the constitution, all constituent states of the federation must have a republican form of government composed of three branches: the executive, represented by a governor and an appointed cabinet, the legislative branch constituted by a unicameral congress and the judiciary, which will include called state Supreme Court of Justice. They also have their own civil and judicial codes.

The legislature is the bicameral Congress of the Union, composed of the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies. The Congress makes federal law, declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments.^[96]

The federal Congress, as well as the state legislatures, are elected by a system of parallel voting that includes plurality and proportional representation.^[97] The Chamber of Deputies has 500 deputies. Of these, 300 are elected by plurality vote in single-member districts (the federal electoral districts) and 200 are elected by proportional representation with closed party lists^[98] for which the country is divided into five electoral constituencies.^[99] The Senate is made up of 128 senators. Of these, 64 senators (two for each state and two for the Federal District) are elected by plurality vote in pairs; 32 senators are the first minority or first-runner up (one for each state and one for the Federal District), and 32 are elected by proportional representation from national closed party lists.^[98]

The executive is the President of the United Mexican States, who is the head of state and government, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Mexican military forces. The President also appoints the Cabinet and other officers. The President is responsible for executing and enforcing the law, and has the power to veto bills.^[100]

Site of the Supreme Court of Justice

The highest organ of the judicial branch of government is the Supreme Court of Justice, the national supreme court, which has eleven judges appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice interprets laws and judges cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are the Federal Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary.^[101]

Politics

Main article: Politics of Mexico

Three parties have historically been the dominant parties in Mexican politics: the National Action Party: a conservative party founded in 1939 and belonging to the Christian Democrat Organization of America;^[102] the Institutional Revolutionary Party, a center-left party and member of Socialist International^[103] that was founded in 1929 to unite all the factions of the Mexican Revolution and held an almost hegemonic power in Mexican politics since then; the Party of the Democratic Revolution: a left-wing party,^[104] founded in 1989 as the successor of the coalition of socialists and liberal parties.

Law enforcement

Main article: Law enforcement in Mexico

Federal Police headquarters in Mexico City

Public security is enacted at the three levels of government, each of which has different prerogatives and responsibilities. Local and state police departments are primarily in charge of law enforcement, whereas the Mexican Federal Police are in charge of specialized duties. All levels report to the Secretaría de Seguridad Pública (Secretary of Public Security). The General Attorney's Office (Procuraduría General de la República, PGR) is the executive power's agency in charge of investigating and prosecuting crimes at the federal level, mainly those related to drug and arms trafficking,^[105] espionage, and bank robberies.^[106] The PGR operates the Federal Investigations Agency (Agencia Federal de Investigación, AFI) an investigative and preventive agency.^[107]

While the government generally respects the human rights of its citizens, serious abuses of power have been reported in security operations in the southern part of the country and in indigenous communities and poor urban neighborhoods.^[108] The National Human Rights Commission has had little impact in reversing this trend, engaging mostly in documentation but failing to use its powers to issue public condemnations to the officials who ignore its recommendations.^[109] By law, all defendants have the rights that assure them fair trials and human treatment; however, the system is overburdened and overwhelmed with several problems.^[108]

Despite the efforts of the authorities to fight crime and fraud, most Mexicans have low confidence in the police or the judicial system, and therefore, few crimes are actually reported by the citizens.^[108] The Global Integrity Index which measures the existence and effectiveness of national anti-corruption mechanisms rated Mexico 31st behind Kenya, Thailand, and Russia.^[110] In 2008, president Calderón proposed a major reform of the judicial system, which was approved by the Congress of the Union, which included oral trials, the presumption of innocence for defendants, the authority of local police to investigate crime—until then a prerogative of special police units—and several other changes intended to speed up trials.^[111]

Crime

Main articles: Crime in Mexico and Mexican Drug War

According to an OECD study in 2012, 15% of Mexicans report having been a victim of crime in the past year, a figure which among OECD countries is only higher in South Africa.^[112] In 2010 Mexico's homicide rate was 18 per 100,000 inhabitants;^[113] the world average is 6.9 per 100,000 inhabitants.^[114] Drug-traffic and narco-related activities are a major concern in Mexico.^[115] Mexico's drug war has left over 60,000 dead and perhaps another 20,000 missing.^[116] The Mexican drug cartels have as many as 100,000 members.^[117] The Mexican government's National Geography and Statistics Institute estimated that there were 41,563 crimes per 100,000 residents in 2012.^[118]

President Felipe Calderón made abating organized crime one of the top priorities of his administration by deploying military personnel to cities where drug cartels operate. This move was criticized by the opposition parties and the National Human Rights Commission for escalating the violence, but its effects have been positively evaluated by the US State Department's Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs as having obtained "unprecedented results" with "many important successes".^[119]

Since President Felipe Calderón launched a crackdown against cartels in 2006, more than 28,000 alleged criminals have been killed.^[120]^[121] Of the total drug-related violence 4% are innocent people,^[122] mostly by-passers and people trapped in between shootings; 90% accounts for criminals and 6% for military personnel and police officers.^[122] In October 2007, President Calderón and US president George W. Bush announced the Mérida Initiative, a plan of law enforcement cooperation between the two countries.^[123]

Foreign relations

Prime Minister Justin Trudeau of Canada, President Barack Obama and President Enrique Peña Nieto prior to the 2015 APEC Summit

Main article: Foreign relations of Mexico

The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the President of Mexico^[124] and managed through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.^[125] The principles of the foreign policy are constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, Section 10, which include: respect for international law and legal equality of states, their sovereignty and independence, non-intervention in the domestic affairs of other countries, peaceful resolution of conflicts, and promotion of collective security through active participation in international organizations.^[124] Since the 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucial complement to these principles.^[126]

Mexico is one of the founding members of several international organizations, most notably the United Nations,^[127] the Organization of American States,^[128] the Organization of Ibero-American States,^[129] the OPANAL^[130] and the Rio Group.^[131] In 2008, Mexico contributed over 40 million dollars to the United Nations regular budget.^[132] In addition, it was the only Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development since it joined in 1994 until Chile gained full membership in 2010.^[133]^[134]

Mexico is considered a regional power^[135]^[136] hence its presence in major economic groups such as the G8+5 and the G-20. In addition, since the 1990s Mexico has sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods^[137] with the support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries, which form a group informally called the Coffee Club.^[138]

After the War of Independence, the relations of Mexico were focused primarily on the United States, its northern neighbor, largest trading partner,^[139] and the most powerful actor in hemispheric and world affairs.^[140] Mexico supported the Cuban government since its establishment in the early 1960s,^[141] the Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua during the late 1970s,^[142] and leftist revolutionary groups in El Salvador during the 1980s.^[143] Felipe Calderón's administration put a greater emphasis on relations with Latin America and the Caribbean.^[144]

Military

Main article: Mexican Armed Forces

A Mexican Navy Eurocopter.

The Mexican Armed Forces have two branches: the Mexican Army (which includes the Mexican Air Force), and the Mexican Navy. The Mexican Armed Forces maintain significant infrastructure, including facilities for design, research, and testing of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems and electronics;^[145]^[146] military industry manufacturing centers for building such systems, and advanced naval dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced missile technologies.^[147]

Mexican built Sierra class corvettes.

In recent years, Mexico has improved its training techniques, military command and information structures and has taken steps to becoming more self-reliant in supplying its military by designing as well as manufacturing its own arms,^[148] missiles,^[146] aircraft,^[149] vehicles, heavy weaponry, electronics,^[145] defense systems,^[145] armor, heavy military industrial equipment and heavy naval vessels.^[150] Since the 1990s, when the military escalated its role in the war on drugs, increasing importance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveillance platforms, aircraft, helicopters, digital war-fighting technologies,^[145] urban warfare equipment and rapid troop transport.^[151]

Mexico has the capabilities to manufacture nuclear weapons, but abandoned this possibility with the Treaty of Tlatelolco in 1968 and pledged to only use its nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.^[152] In 1970, Mexico's national institute for nuclear research successfully refined weapons grade uranium^[153] which is used in the manufacture of nuclear weapons but in April 2010, Mexico agreed to turn over its weapons grade uranium to the United States.^[154]^[155]

Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts,^[156] with the exception of World War II. However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of the Constitution in order to allow the Mexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions, or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it.^[157]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Administrative divisions of Mexico, States of Mexico and Municipalities of Mexico

Map	State	Capital	State	Capital
Gulf of Mexico Pacific Ocean Central America United States of America Federal District AG Baja California Baja California Sur Campeche Chiapas Chihuahua Coahuila Colima Durango Guanajuato Guerrero HD Jalisco EM Michoacán MO Nayarit Nuevo León Oaxaca Puebla QU Quintana Roo San Luis Potosí Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas TL Veracruz Yucatán Zacatecas	Aguascalientes (AGS)	Aguascalientes	Morelos (MOR)	Cuernavaca
Baja California (BC)	Mexicali	Nayarit (NAY)	Tepic
Baja California Sur (BCS)	La Paz	Nuevo León (NL)	Monterrey
Campeche (CAM)	Campeche	Oaxaca (OAX)	Oaxaca
Chiapas (CHP)	Tuxtla Gutiérrez	Puebla (PUE)	Puebla
Chihuahua (CHH)	Chihuahua	Querétaro (QUE)	Querétaro
Coahuila (COA)	Saltillo	Quintana Roo (QR)	Chetumal
Colima (COL)	Colima	San Luis Potosí (SLP)	San Luis Potosí
Durango (DUR)	Durango	Sinaloa (SIN)	Culiacán
Guanajuato (GTO)	Guanajuato	Sonora (SON)	Hermosillo
Guerrero (GRO)	Chilpancingo	Tabasco (TAB)	Villahermosa
Hidalgo (HDG)	Pachuca	Tamaulipas (TAM)	Victoria
Jalisco (JAL)	Guadalajara	Tlaxcala (TLA)	Tlaxcala
State of Mexico (EM)	Toluca	Veracruz (VER)	Xalapa
Federal District (DF)	Mexico City	Yucatán (YUC)	Mérida
Michoacán (MIC)	Morelia	Zacatecas (ZAC)	Zacatecas

Economy

Main article: Economy of Mexico

A proportional representation of Mexico's exports. The country has the most complex economy in Latin America.

Paseo de la Reforma, the CBD of Mexico City.

Mexico has the 15th largest nominal GDP and the 11th largest by purchasing power parity. GDP annual average growth for the period of 1995–2002 was 5.1%.^[80] Mexico's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) was estimated at US $2.2602 trillion in 2015, and $1.3673 trillion in nominal exchange rates.^[161] Mexico's GDP in PPP per capita was US $18,714.05. The World Bank reported in 2009 that the country's Gross National Income in market exchange rates was the second highest in Latin America, after Brazil at US $1,830.392 billion,^[162] which lead to the highest income per capita in the region at $14,400.^[163] Mexico is now firmly established as an upper middle-income country. After the slowdown of 2001 the country has recovered and has grown 4.2, 3.0 and 4.8 percent in 2004, 2005 and 2006,^[164] even though it is considered to be well below Mexico's potential growth.^[165] Furthermore, after the 2008-2009 recession, the economy grew an average of 3.32 percent per year from 2010 to 2014.

From the late 1990s onwards, the majority of the population has been part of the growing middle class.^[166] But from 2004 to 2008 the portion of the population who received less than half of the median income has risen from 17% to 21% and the absolute levels of poverty rose from 2006 to 2010, with a rise in persons living in extreme or moderate poverty rising from 35 to 46% (52 million persons).^[112]^[167] This is also reflected by the fact that infant mortality in Mexico is three times higher than the average among OECD nations, and the literacy levels are in the median range of OECD nations. Nevertheless, according to Goldman Sachs, by 2050 Mexico will have the 5th largest economy in the world.^[168]

Among the OECD countries, Mexico has the second highest degree of economic disparity between the extremely poor and extremely rich, after Chile – although it has been falling over the last decade, being only one of few countries in which this is the case.^[169] The bottom ten percent in the income hierarchy disposes of 1.36% of the country's resources, whereas the upper ten percent dispose of almost 36%. OECD also notes that Mexico's budgeted expenses for poverty alleviation and social development is only about a third of the OECD average – both in absolute and relative numbers.^[112]

According to a 2008 UN report the average income in a typical urbanized area of Mexico was $26,654, while the average income in rural areas just miles away was only $8,403.^[170] Daily minimum wages are set annually by law and determined by zone; $67.29 Mexican pesos ($5.13 USD) in Zone A and $63.77 Mexican pesos ($4.86 USD) in Zone B.^[171]

A tablet PC and touch screen computer / television made by Mexican Meebox.

The electronics industry of Mexico has grown enormously within the last decade. Mexico has the sixth largest electronics industry in the world after China, United States, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Mexico is the second largest exporter of electronics to the United States where it exported $71.4 billion worth of electronics in 2011.^[172] The Mexican electronics industry is dominated by the manufacture and OEM design of televisions, displays, computers, mobile phones, circuit boards, semiconductors, electronic appliances, communications equipment and LCD modules. The Mexican electronics industry grew 20% between 2010 and 2011, up from its constant growth rate of 17% between 2003 and 2009.^[172] Currently electronics represent 30% of Mexico's exports.^[172]

Mexico produces the most automobiles of any North American nation.^[173] The industry produces technologically complex components and engages in some research and development activities.^[174] The "Big Three" (General Motors, Ford and Chrysler) have been operating in Mexico since the 1930s, while Volkswagen and Nissan built their plants in the 1960s.^[175] In Puebla alone, 70 industrial part-makers cluster around Volkswagen.^[174] In the 2010s expansion of the sector was surging. In 2014 alone, more than $10 billion in investment was committed. Kia Motors in August 2014 announced plans for a $1 billion factory in Nuevo León. At the time Mercedes-Benz and Nissan were already building a $1.4 billion plant near Puebla, while BMW was planning a $1-billion assembly plant in San Luis Potosí. Additionally, Audi began building a $1.3 billion factory near Puebla in 2013.^[176]

The domestic car industry is represented by DINA S.A., which has built buses and trucks since 1962,^[177] and the new Mastretta company that builds the high-performance Mastretta MXT sports car.^[178] In 2006, trade with the United States and Canada accounted for almost 50% of Mexico's exports and 45% of its imports.^[12] During the first three quarters of 2010, the United States had a $46.0 billion trade deficit with Mexico.^[179] In August 2010 Mexico surpassed France to become the 9th largest holder of US debt.^[180] The commercial and financial dependence on the US is a cause for concern.^[181]

The remittances from Mexican citizens working in the United States account for 0.2% of Mexico's GDP^[182] which was equal to US$20 billion per year in 2004 and is the tenth largest source of foreign income after oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and financial services.^[183] According to Mexico's central bank, remittances in 2008 amounted to $25bn.^[184]

Major players in the broadcasting industry are Televisa, the largest Spanish media company in the Spanish-speaking world,^[185] and TV Azteca.

Communications

Main article: Telecommunications in Mexico

Televisa is the largest media company in the Spanish-speaking world.

The telecommunications industry is mostly dominated by Telmex (Teléfonos de México), privatized in 1990. By 2006, Telmex had expanded its operations to Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay and the United States. Other players in the domestic industry are Axtel and Maxcom. Because of Mexican orography, providing a landline telephone service at remote mountainous areas is expensive, and the penetration of line-phones per capita is low compared to other Latin American countries, at 40 percent; however, 82% of Mexicans over the age of 14 own a mobile phone. Mobile telephony has the advantage of reaching all areas at a lower cost, and the total number of mobile lines is almost two times that of landlines, with an estimation of 63 million lines.^[186] The telecommunication industry is regulated by the government through Cofetel (Comisión Federal de Telecomunicaciones).

The Mexican satellite system is domestic and operates 120 earth stations. There is also extensive microwave radio relay network and considerable use of fiber-optic and coaxial cable.^[186] Mexican satellites are operated by Satélites Mexicanos (Satmex), a private company, leader in Latin America and servicing both North and South America.^[187] It offers broadcast, telephone and telecommunication services to 37 countries in the Americas, from Canada to Argentina. Through business partnerships Satmex provides high-speed connectivity to ISPs and Digital Broadcast Services.^[188] Satmex maintains its own satellite fleet with most of the fleet being designed and built in Mexico.

The use of radio, television, and Internet in Mexico is prevalent.^[189] There are approximately 1,410 radio broadcast stations and 236 television stations (excluding repeaters).^[186] Major players in the broadcasting industry are Televisa—the largest media company in the Spanish-speaking world^[185]—and TV Azteca.

Energy

Science and technology

Main article: History of science and technology in Mexico

The Large Millimeter Telescope

The National Autonomous University of Mexico was officially established in 1910,^[199] and the university become one of the most important institutes of higher learning in Mexico.^[200] UNAM provides world class education in science, medicine, and engineering.^[201] Many scientific institutes and new institutes of higher learning, such as National Polytechnic Institute (founded in 1936),^[202] were established during the first half of the 20th century. Most of the new research institutes were created within UNAM. Twelve institutes were integrated into UNAM from 1929 to 1973.^[203] In 1959, the Mexican Academy of Sciences was created to coordinate scientific efforts between academics.

In 1995, the Mexican chemist Mario J. Molina shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Paul J. Crutzen and F. Sherwood Rowland for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone.^[204] Molina, an alumnus of UNAM, became the first Mexican citizen to win the Nobel Prize in science.^[205]

In recent years, the largest scientific project being developed in Mexico was the construction of the Large Millimeter Telescope (Gran Telescopio Milimétrico, GMT), the world's largest and most sensitive single-aperture telescope in its frequency range.^[206] It was designed to observe regions of space obscured by stellar dust.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Mexico

The Chapultepec Castle is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Mexico

Mexico has been traditionally among the most visited countries in the world according to the World Tourism Organization and it is the most visited country in the Americas, after the United States. The most notable attractions are the Meso-American ruins, cultural festivals, colonial cities, nature reserves and the beach resorts. The nation's temperate climate and unique culture – a fusion of the European and the Meso-American – make Mexico an attractive destination. The peak tourism seasons in the country are during December and the mid-Summer, with brief surges during the week before Easter and Spring break, when many of the beach resort sites become popular destinations for college students from the United States.

Mexico has the 23rd highest income from tourism in the world, and the highest in Latin America.^[207] The vast majority of tourists come to Mexico from the United States and Canada followed by Europe and Asia. A smaller number also come from other Latin American countries.^[208] In the 2011 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index report, Mexico was ranked 43rd in the world, which was 4th in the Americas .^[209]

The coastlines of Mexico harbor many stretches of beaches that are frequented by sun bathers and other visitors. On the Yucatán peninsula, one of the most popular beach destinations is the resort town of Cancún, especially among university students during spring break. Just offshore is the beach island of Isla Mujeres, and to the east is the Isla Holbox. To the south of Cancun is the coastal strip called Riviera Maya which includes the beach town of Playa del Carmen and the ecological parks of Xcaret and Xel-Há. A day trip to the south of Cancún is the historic port of Tulum. In addition to its beaches, the town of Tulum is notable for its cliff-side Mayan ruins.

El Tajín is one of the largest and most important cities of the Classic era of Mesoamerica

On the Pacific coast is the notable tourist destination of Acapulco. Once the destination for the rich and famous, the beaches have become crowded and the shores are now home to many multi-story hotels and vendors. Acapulco is home to renowned cliff divers: trained divers who leap from the side of a vertical cliff into the surf below.

At the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula is the resort town of Cabo San Lucas, a town noted for its beaches and marlin fishing.^[210] Further north along the Sea of Cortés is the Bahía de La Concepción, another beach town known for its sports fishing. Closer to the United States border is the weekend draw of San Felipe, Baja California.

Transportation

Main article: Transportation in Mexico

The roadway network in Mexico is extensive and all areas in the country are covered by it.^[211] The roadway network in Mexico has an extent of 366,095 km (227,481 mi),^[212] of which 116,802 km (72,577 mi) are paved,^[212] making it the largest paved-roadway network in Latin America.^[213] Of these, 10,474 km (6,508 mi) are multi-lane expressways: 9,544 km (5,930 mi) are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.^[212]

Mexico was one of the first Latin American countries to promote railway development,^[108] and the network covers 30,952 km (19,233 mi).^[189] The Secretary of Communications and Transport of Mexico proposed a high-speed rail link that will transport its passengers from Mexico City to Guadalajara, Jalisco.^[214]^[215] The train, which will travel at 300 kilometers per hour,^[216] will allow passengers to travel from Mexico City to Guadalajara in just 2 hours.^[216] The whole project was projected to cost 240 billion pesos, or about 25 billion US$^[214] and is being paid for jointly by the Mexican government and the local private sector including the wealthiest man in the world, Mexico's billionaire business tycoon Carlos Slim.^[217] The government of the state of Yucatán is also funding the construction of a high speed line connecting the cities of Cozumel to Mérida and Chichen Itza and Cancún.^[218]

Mexico has 233 airports with paved runways; of these, 35 carry 97% of the passenger traffic.^[189] The Mexico City International Airport remains the largest in Latin America and the 44th largest in the world^[219] transporting 21 million passengers a year.^[220]

Water supply and sanitation

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Mexico

Among the achievements is a significant increase in access to piped water supply in urban areas (88% to 93%) as well as in rural areas (50% to 74%) between 1990 and 2010. Additionally, a strong nationwide increase in access to improved sanitation (64% to 85%) was observed in the same period. Other achievements include the existence of a functioning national system to finance water and sanitation infrastructure with a National Water Commission as its apex institution; and the existence of a few well-performing utilities such as Aguas y Drenaje de Monterrey.

The challenges include water scarcity in the northern and central parts of the country; inadequate water service quality (drinking water quality; 55% of Mexicans receiving water only intermittently according to results of the 2000 census); poor technical and commercial efficiency of most utilities (with an average level of non-revenue water of 51% in 2003); an insufficient share of wastewater receiving treatment (36% in 2006); and still inadequate access in rural areas. In addition to on-going investments to expand access, the government has embarked on a large investment program to improve wastewater treatment.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Mexico

The recently conducted 2010 Census^[221] showed a population of 112,336,538, making it the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world.^[222] Between 2005 and 2010, the Mexican population grew at an average of 1.70% per year, up from 1.16% per year between 2000 and 2005.

Mexico is ethnically diverse; the various indigenous peoples and European immigrants are united under a single national identity.^[223] The core part of Mexican national identity is formed on the basis of a synthesis of European culture with indigenous cultures in a process known as mestizaje, alluding to the mixed biological origins of the majority of Mexicans.^[223]^[224] Mexican politicians and reformers such as José Vasconcelos and Manuel Gamio were instrumental in building a Mexican national identity on the concept of mestizaje.^[225]

The mestizo identity promoted by the government is more a cultural identity than a biological one, giving it a strong influence in the country. Many biologically white people identify with it, leading to them being considered Mestizos in Mexico's demographic investigations and censuses because the ethnic criteria is based on cultural traits rather than biological ones.^[226] A similar situation occurs regarding the distinctions between indigenous peoples and mestizos: while the term mestizo is sometimes used in English with the meaning of a person with mixed indigenous and European blood, this usage does not conform to the Mexican social reality where a person of pure indigenous genetic heritage would be considered Mestizo either by rejecting his indigenous culture or by not speaking an indigenous language,^[227] and a person with a very low percentage of indigenous genetic heritage would be considered fully indigenous either by speaking an indigenous language or by identifying with a particular indigenous cultural heritage.^[228]^[229]^[230]

The term mestizo itself, albeit often used in literature about Mexican social identities, carries a variety of socio-cultural, economic, racial and biological meanings. For this reason it has been deemed too imprecise to be used for ethnic classification and has been abandoned in Mexican censuses.^[108]^[231]

The category of indígena (indigenous) can be defined narrowly according to linguistic criteria including only speakers of one of Mexico's 62 indigenous languages or people who self-identify as having an indigenous cultural background. According to the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples, in 2005 there were 10.1 million Mexicans who spoke an indigenous language and claimed indigenous heritage, representing 9.8% of the total population.^[232] Another source, the 2010 census, found that 14.86% of the population self-identified as indigenous.^[233]

Mexico is home to the largest number of U.S. citizens abroad (estimated at one million in 1999).^[234] The Argentine community is considered to be the second-largest foreign community in the country (estimated somewhere between 30,000 and 150,000).^[235]^[236] Mexico also has a large Lebanese community, now numbering around 400,000.^[237] In October 2008, Mexico agreed to deport Cubans using the country as an entry point to the US.^[238] Large numbers of Central American migrants who have crossed Guatemala's western border into Mexico are deported every year.^[239]^[240] Small numbers of illegal immigrants come from Ecuador, Cuba, China, South Africa, and Pakistan.^[241] Mexico is the largest source of immigration to the United States.^[242] 11.6 million Americans listed their ancestry as Mexican as of 2014.^[243]

Mestizo

President Porfirio Diaz was of Mestizo descent

A large majority of Mexicans have been classified as "Mestizos", meaning in modern Mexican usage that they identify fully neither with any indigenous culture nor with a particular non-Mexican heritage, but rather identify as having cultural traits and heritage incorporating elements from indigenous and European traditions. By the deliberate efforts of post-revolutionary governments the "Mestizo identity" was constructed as the base of the modern Mexican national identity, through a process of cultural synthesis referred to as mestizaje. Mexican politicians and reformers such as José Vasconcelos and Manuel Gamio were instrumental in building a Mexican national identity on the concept of mestizaje.^[244]^[245] Cultural policies in early post-revolutionary Mexico were paternalistic towards the indigenous people, with efforts designed to "help" indigenous peoples achieve the same level of progress as the rest of society, eventually assimilating indigenous peoples completely to Mestizo Mexican culture, working toward the goal of eventually solving the "Indian problem" by transforming indigenous communities into mestizo communities.^[246]

A 2014 publication summarizing population genetics research in Mexico, which have included three nationwide surveys and several region-specific surveys, found that in the studies done to date, counting only studies that looked at the ancestry of both parents: "Amerindian ancestry is most prevalent (51% to 56%) in the three general estimates, followed by European ancestry (40% to 45%); the African share represents only 2% to 5%. ... In Mexico City, the European contribution was estimated as 21% to 32% in six of the seven reports, with the anomalous value of 57% obtained in a single sample of 19 subjects. European ancestry is most prevalent in the north (Chihuahua, 50%; Sonora, 62%; Nuevo León, 55%), but in a recent sample from Nuevo León and elsewhere in the country, Amerindian ancestry is dominant."^[247]

The term "Mestizo" is not in wide use in Mexican society today and has been dropped as a category in population censuses; it is, however, still used in social and cultural studies when referring to the non-indigenous part of the Mexican population. The word has somewhat pejorative connotations and most of the Mexican citizens who would be defined as mestizos in the sociological literature would probably self-identify primarily as Mexicans. In the Yucatán peninsula the word Mestizo is even used about Maya-speaking populations living in traditional communities, because during the caste war of the late 19th century those Maya who did not join the rebellion were classified as mestizos.^[248] In Chiapas the word "Ladino" is used instead of mestizo.^[249]

Mexicans of European descent

Main article: Mexicans of European descent

A group of European Mexican children from Chihuahua singing the National Anthem in the Mexican Congress.

European Mexicans are Mexican citizens of European descent.^[250] Despite that Mexico does not have a racial census, estimations from different international organizations regarding the number of this ethnic group within the country's population range from 9% according to The World Factbook, to as high as 17% (or nearly one-fifth) according to Encyclopædia Britannica.
United States
16,794,111 ^a^[251] Another group in Mexico, the "mestizos", also include people with varying amounts of European ancestry, with some having a European admixture higher than 90%.^[252] Although it must be considered that the criteria to define mestizo might be different from study to study, and that in Mexico a good number of white people has been historically classified as mestizos, because the Mexican government defines ethnicity on cultural standards as opposed to racial ones.^[253]

Genetic studies in Mexico show a varying degree of European admixture in Mestizos. Genetic variation is largely based upon where in the country an individual is from. This is true because Native Mexicans are concentrated in the South and Central part of the country, whilst the "white" population is concentrated in the north.^[254]^[255]

In another study, Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine issued a report on a genomic study of mestizos from the states of Guerrero, Sonora, Veracruz, Yucatán, Zacatecas, and Guanajuato. The study found that the Mestizo population of these Mexican states were on average 55% of indigenous ancestry followed by 41.8% of European, 1.8% of African, and 1.2% of East Asian ancestry. The study also noted that whereas Mestizo individuals from the southern state of Guerrero showed on average 66% of indigenous ancestry, those from the northern state of Sonora displayed about 61.6% European ancestry. The study found that there was an increase in indigenous ancestry as one traveled towards to the Southern states in Mexico, while the indigenous ancestry declined as one traveled to the Northern states in the country, such as Sonora.

Europeans began arriving in Mexico with the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, with the descendents of the conquistadors, along with new arrivals from Spain formed an elite but were a small minority of the population. Most white immigrants however intermixed with the Mestizo and indigenous populations.^[256]

While most of European migration into Mexico was Spanish during the colonial period, in the 19th and 20th centuries European and European derived populations from North and South America did immigrate to the country. However, at its height, the total immigrant population in Mexico never exceeded ten percent of the total.^[250] Many of these immigrants came with money to invest and/or ties to allow them to become prominent in business and other aspects of Mexican society. However, due to government restrictions many of them left the country in the early 20th century.

Mexico's northern regions have the greatest European population and admixture. In the northwest, the majority of the relatively small indigenous communities remain isolated from the rest of the population, and as for the northeast, the indigenous population was eliminated by early European and Mestizo settlers, becoming the region with the highest proportion of whites during the Spanish colonial period. However, recent immigrants from southern Mexico have been changing, to some degree, its demographic trends.^[257] According to the last racial census Mexico took, which was in 1921,^[258] there were no states in Mexico that had a majority "white" population, and in virtually every state in the north Mestizos were the largest population group.^[258] The only state where "whites" outnumbered Mestizos was Sonora, in which "whites" composed 41.85% of the population, and Mestizos 40.38%.^[258]

Indigenous peoples

Main article: Indigenous peoples of Mexico

Two young Mixtec people dancing a jarabe.

According to the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples (Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, or CDI in Spanish) and the INEGI (official census institute), there are 15.7 million indigenous people in Mexico,^[259] of many different ethnic groups,^[232] which constitute 14.9% of the population in the country. The number of indigenous Mexicans is judged using the political criteria found in the 2nd article of the Mexican constitution. The Mexican census does not report racial-ethnicity but only the cultural-ethnicity of indigenous communities that preserve their indigenous languages, traditions, beliefs, and cultures. The absolute indigenous population is growing, but at a slower rate than the rest of the population so that the percentage of indigenous peoples is nonetheless falling.^[260]

The category of "indigena" (indigenous) can be defined narrowly according to linguistic criteria including only persons that speak one of Mexico's 62 indigenous languages, this is the categorization used by the National Mexican Institute of Statistics. It can also be defined broadly to include all persons who selfidentify as having an indigenous cultural background, whether or not they speak the language of the indigenous group they identify with. This means that the percentage of the Mexican population defined as "indigenous" varies according to the definition applied, cultural activists have referred to the usage of the narrow definition of the term for census purposes as "statistical genocide".^[261]^[262]

The majority of the indigenous population is concentrated in the central and southern states. These states are generally the least developed, and the majority of the indigenous population live in rural areas. Some indigenous communities have a degree of autonomy under the legislation of "usos y costumbres", which allows them to regulate some internal issues under customary law.

According to the CDI, the states with the greatest proportion of indigenous residents are:^[263] Yucatán, at 59%, Quintana Roo 39% and Campeche 27%, chiefly Maya; Oaxaca with 48% of the population, the most numerous groups being the Mixtec and Zapotec peoples; Chiapas at 28%, the majority being Tzeltal and Tzotzil Maya; Hidalgo 24%, the majority being Otomi; Puebla 19%, and Guerrero 17%, mostly Nahua people and the states of San Luis Potosí and Veracruz both home to a population that is 15% indigenous, mostly from the Totonac, Nahua and Teenek (Huastec) groups.^[264]

All of the indices of social development for the indigenous population are considerably lower than the national average. In all states indigenous people have higher infant mortality, in some states almost double of the non-indigenous populations. Literacy rates are also much lower, with 27% of indigenous children between 6 and 14 being illiterate compared to a national average of 12%. The indigenous population participate in the workforce longer than the national average, starting earlier and continuing longer. However, 55% of the indigenous population receive less than a minimum salary, compared to 20% for the national average. Many practice subsistence agriculture and receive no salaries. Indigenous people also have less access to health care and a lower quality of housing.^[264]

Arab Mexicans

Main article: Arab Mexicans

Moorish Kiosk of Santa María la Ribera built in 1910 by Eng José Ramón Ibarrola

Arab immigration to Mexico started in the 19th and early 20th centuries.^[265] Roughly 100,000 Arabic-speakers settled in Mexico during this time period. They came mostly from Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Iraq and settled in significant numbers in Nayarit, Guanajuato, Puebla, Mexico City and the Northern part of the country (mainly in the states of Baja California, Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Zacatecas, Coahuila, and Durango), as well as the cities of Tampico and Guadalajara . The term "Arab Mexican" may include ethnic groups that do not in fact identify as Arab.

The vast majority of Mexico's 1,100,000 Arabs are from either Lebanese, Syrian, Iraqi, Moroccan or Palestinian background.^[266]

The inter-ethnic marriage in the Arab community, regardless of religious affiliation, is very high; most community members have only one parent who has Arab ethnicity. As a result of this, the Arab community in Mexico shows marked language shift away from Arabic.

Only a few speak any Arabic, and such knowledge is often limited to a few basic words. Instead the majority, especially those of younger generations, speak Spanish as a first language. Today, the most common Arabic surnames in Mexico include Slim (Salim), Bichir (Bashir), Hayek, Medina, Ayoub, Nader, Ali, Sabah, Mier, Haddad, Nasser, Mohamed, Malik, Abed, Mansoor, Magana, Esper, Harb, Califa and Elias.

Afro-Mexicans

Main article: Afro-Mexicans

Girl from Punta Maldonado, Guerrero.

Afro-Mexicans (Spanish: afromexicanos; negros; afrodescendientes)^[267] are Mexicans who have a heritage from Sub-Saharan Africa.^[268]^[269] Also known as Black Mexicans,^[269] they are an ethnic group made up of recent immigrants of African descent to Mexico and the descendants of slaves,^[268] such as in the communities of the Costa Chica of Oaxaca and Guerrero, Veracruz and in some cities in northern Mexico. The history of blacks in Mexico has been lesser known for a number of reasons: their relatively small numbers, regular intermarriage with other ethnic groups, and Mexico's tradition of defining itself as a "mestizaje" or mixing culture.

Mexico had an active slave trade since the early colonial period and an estimated 200,000 Africans were brought there. From the beginning, the slaves, who were mostly male, intermarried with indigenous women. In some cases Spanish colonists had unions with female slaves. Spanish colonists created an elaborate racial caste system, classifying people by racial mixture. This system broke down in the very late colonial period; after Independence, the legal notion of race was eliminated.

The creation of a national Mexican identity, especially after the Mexican Revolution, emphasized Mexico's indigenous and European past; it passively eliminated the African ancestors and contributions. Though Mexico had a significant number of African slaves during colonial times, most of the African-descended population were absorbed into the surrounding Mestizo (mixed European/indigenous) and indigenous populations through unions among the groups. Evidence of this long history of intermarriage with Mestizo and indigenous Mexicans is also expressed in the fact that in the 2015 census, 64.9% (896,829) of Afro-Mexicans also identified as indigenous. It was also reported that 9.3% of Afro-Mexicans speak an indigenous language.^[270] Less than 1.2% of Mexico's population has significant African ancestry, with 1.38 million recognized during the 2015 Mexican Census. Numerous Afro-Mexicans in the 21st century are naturalized black immigrants from Africa and the Caribbean.^[271]

Population genetics

An 18th-century casta painting show an indigenous woman with her Spanish husband and their Mestizo child.

A 2012 study published by the Journal of Human Genetics found the ancestry of the Mexican mestizo population to be predominately European (65%), followed by Native American (31%) and African (4%). The European ancestry was prevalent in the north and west (66.7–95%) and Native American ancestry increased in the center and southeast (37–50%), the African ancestry was low and relatively homogeneous (0–8.8%).^[254] The states that participated in this study were Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, Veracruz and Yucatán.^[272]

The largest amount of chromosomes found were identified as belonging to the haplogroups from Western Europe, East Europe and Eurasia, Siberia and the Americas and Northern Europe with relatively smaller traces of haplogroups from Central Asia, South-east Asia, South-central Asia, Western Asia, The Caucasus, North Africa, Near East, East Asia, North-east Asia, South-west Asia and The Middle East.^[273]

A study by the National Institute of Genomic Medicine, Mexico reported that Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 31.05% "Asian" (Amerindian), and 10.03% African. Sonora shows the highest European contribution (70.63%) and Guerrero the lowest (51.98%) which also has the highest Asian contribution (37.17%). African contribution ranges from 2.8% in Sonora to 11.13% in Veracruz. 80% of the Mexican population was classed as mestizo (defined as "being racially mixed in some degree").^[274]

In May 2009, Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine issued a report on a genomic study of 300 mestizos from the states of Guerrero, Sonora, Veracruz, Yucatán, Zacatecas, and Guanajuato. The study found that the Mestizo population of these Mexican states were on average 55% of indigenous ancestry followed by 41.8% of European, 1.8% of African, and 1.2% of East Asian ancestry.^[275]

The study also noted that whereas Mestizo individuals from the southern state of Guerrero showed on average 66% of indigenous ancestry, those from the northern state of Sonora displayed about 61.6% European ancestry. The study found that there was an increase in indigenous ancestry as one traveled towards to the Southern states in Mexico, while the indigenous ancestry declined as one traveled to the Northern states in the country, such as Sonora.^[275]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Mexico

The country has the largest Spanish-speaking population in the world with almost a third of all Spanish native speakers.^[222]^[276]

Almost all of the Mexican population speaks Spanish, 99.3% according to the latest census,^[277] nonetheless around 5.4% still speaks an indigenous language besides Spanish. The indigenous languages with most speakers are Nahuatl, spoken by approximately 1.45 million people,^[278] Yukatek Maya spoken by some 750,000 people and the Mixtec^[279] and Zapotec languages^[280] each spoken by more than 400,000 people.

The National Institute of Indigenous Languages INALI recognizes 68 linguistic groups and some 364 different specific varieties of indigenous languages.^[281] Since the promulgation of the Law of Indigenous Linguistic Rights in 2003, these languages have had status as national languages, with equal validity with Spanish in all the areas and contexts in which they are spoken.^[282]

In addition to the indigenous languages, other minority languages are spoken by immigrant populations, such as the 80,000 German-speaking Mennonites in Mexico,^[283] and 5,000 the Chipilo dialect of the Venetian language spoken in Chipilo, Puebla.

Urban areas

Main article: Metropolitan areas of Mexico

Here are the 20 largest urban areas in Mexico.

Largest metropolitan areas in Mexico 2010 Mexican National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) estimate.
	Rank	Name	State	Pop.	Rank	Name	State	Pop.
Mexico City Guadalajara	1	Mexico City	Federal District (DF)	20,137,152	11	San Luis Potosí	San Luis Potosí (SL)	1,040,822	Monterrey Puebla
	2	Guadalajara	Jalisco (JA)	4,434,252	12	Mérida	Yucatán (YU)	973,046
	3	Monterrey	Nuevo Leon (NL)	4,106,054	13	Mexicali	Baja California (BC)	936,145
	4	Puebla	Puebla (PB)	2,728,790	14	Aguascalientes	Aguascalientes (AG)	932,298
	5	Toluca	State of Mexico (EM)	1,936,126	15	Cuernavaca	Morelos (MO)	875,598
	6	Tijuana	Baja California (BC)	1,751,302	16	Acapulco	Guerrero (GR)	863,438
	7	León	Guanajuato (GT)	1,609,717	17	Tampico	Tamaulipas (TM)	858,620
	8	Juárez	Chihuahua (CH)	1,495,094	18	Chihuahua	Chihuahua (CH)	851,971
	9	Torreón	Coahuila (CO)	1,275,993	19	Saltillo	Coahuila (CO)	823,098
	10	Querétaro	Querétaro (QT)	1,097,028	20	Morelia	Michoacán (MI)	806,822

Religion

Religion in Mexico (2010 census)^[284]

Roman Catholicism		83%
Other Christian		10%
Other Religion		0.2%
No religion		5%
Unspecified		3%

Women

Further information: Women in Mexico

Until the twentieth century, Mexico was an overwhelmingly rural country, with rural women's status defined within the context of the family and local community. With urbanization beginning in the sixteenth century, following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire, cities have provided economic and social opportunities not possible within rural villages. Roman Catholicism in Mexico has shaped societal attitudes about women's social role, emphasizing the role of women as nurturers of the family, with the Virgin Mary as a model. Marianismo has been an ideal, with women's role as being within the family under the authority of men. In the twentieth century, Mexican women made great strides toward towards a more equal legal and social status. In 1953, women in Mexico were granted the vote in national elections.

Mexican women face discrimination and at times harassment from the machismo population. Although women in Mexico are making big advancements they are faced with the traditional expectations of being the head of the household. Researcher Margarita Valdés noted that while there are few inequalities enforced by law or policy in Mexico, there are gender inequalities perpetuated by social structures and Mexican cultural expectations that limit the capabilities of Mexican women.^[293]

As of 2014, Mexico has the 16th highest rate of homicides committed against women in the world ^[294] The prevalence of domestic violence against women in Mexican marital relationships varies at between 30 and 60 percent of relationships.^[295] The remains of the victims were frequently mutilated.^[296] According to a 1997 study, domestic abuse in Mexican culture "is embedded in gender and marital relations fostered in Mexican women's dependence on their spouses for subsistence and for self-esteem, sustained by ideologies of romantic love, by family structure and residential arrangements."^[297] The perpetrators are often the boyfriend, father-in-law, ex-husbands or husbands but only 1.6% of the murder cases led to an arrest and sentencing.^[296]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Mexico

Frida Kahlo with Diego Rivera in 1932.

Mexican culture reflects the complexity of the country's history through the blending of indigenous cultures and the culture of Spain, imparted during Spain's 300-year colonization of Mexico. Exogenous cultural elements have been incorporated into Mexican culture as time has passed.

The Porfirian era (el Porfiriato), in the last quarter of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century, was marked by economic progress and peace. After four decades of civil unrest and war, Mexico saw the development of philosophy and the arts, promoted by President Díaz himself. Since that time, as accentuated during the Mexican Revolution, cultural identity has had its foundation in the mestizaje, of which the indigenous (i.e. Amerindian) element is the core. In light of the various ethnicities that formed the Mexican people, José Vasconcelos in his publication La Raza Cósmica (The Cosmic Race) (1925) defined Mexico to be the melting pot of all races (thus extending the definition of the mestizo) not only biologically but culturally as well.^[298]

Literature

Main articles: Mexican literature and Mesoamerican literature

Mexican literature has its antecedents in the literatures of the indigenous settlements of Mesoamerica. The most well known prehispanic poet is Nezahualcoyotl. Modern Mexican literature was influenced by the concepts of the Spanish colonialization of Mesoamerica. Outstanding colonial writers and poets include Juan Ruiz de Alarcón and Juana Inés de la Cruz.

Other writers include Alfonso Reyes, José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Carlos Fuentes, Octavio Paz (Nobel Laureate), Renato Leduc, Carlos Monsiváis, Elena Poniatowska, Mariano Azuela ("Los de abajo") and Juan Rulfo ("Pedro Páramo"). Bruno Traven wrote "Canasta de cuentos mexicanos" (Mexican tales basket), "El tesoro de la Sierra Madre" (Treasure of the Sierra Madre).

Visual arts

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Mexico

Mexican films from the Golden Age in the 1940s and 1950s are the greatest examples of Latin American cinema, with a huge industry comparable to the Hollywood of those years. Mexican films were exported and exhibited in all of Latin America and Europe. Maria Candelaria (1944) by Emilio Fernández, was one of the first films awarded a Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 1946, the first time the event was held after World War II. The famous Spanish-born director Luis Buñuel realized in Mexico, between 1947 and 1965 some of him master pieces like Los Olvidados (1949), Viridiana (1961) and El angel exterminador (1963). Famous actors and actresses from this period include María Félix, Pedro Infante, Dolores del Río, Jorge Negrete and the comedian Cantinflas.

More recently, films such as Como agua para chocolate (1992), Cronos (1993), Y tu mamá también (2001), and Pan's Labyrinth (2006) have been successful in creating universal stories about contemporary subjects, and were internationally recognised, as in the prestigious Cannes Film Festival. Mexican directors Alejandro González Iñárritu (Amores perros, Babel), Alfonso Cuarón (Children of Men, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban), Guillermo del Toro, Carlos Carrera (The Crime of Father Amaro), and screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga are some of the most known present-day film makers.

Media

Further information: Mexican television and List of newspapers in Mexico

There are two major television companies in Mexico that own the four primary networks that broadcast to 75% of the population. They are Televisa, which owns the Canal de las Estrellas and Canal 5 networks, and TV Azteca, which owns the Azteca 7 and Azteca Trece networks. Televisa is also the largest producer of Spanish-language content in the world and also the world's largest Spanish-language media network.^[300] Grupo Multimedios is another media conglomerate with Spanish-language broadcasting in Mexico, Spain, and the United States. The telenovelas are very traditional in Mexico and are translated to many languages and seen all over the world with renowned names like Verónica Castro, Lucía Méndez, Lucero, and Thalía.

Music

Main article: Music of Mexico

Mariachi at the Festival del Mariachi, Charrería y Tequila in San Juan de los Lagos, Mexico.

Mexican society enjoys a vast array of music genres, showing the diversity of Mexican culture. Traditional music includes mariachi, banda, norteño, ranchera and corridos; on an everyday basis most Mexicans listen to contemporary music such as pop, rock, etc. in both English and Spanish. Mexico has the largest media industry in Latin America, producing Mexican artists who are famous in Central and South America and parts of Europe, especially Spain.

Some well-known Mexican singers are Thalía, Lynda Thomas, Luis Miguel, Juan Gabriel, Alejandro Fernández, Julieta Venegas, Jose Jose and Paulina Rubio. Mexican singers of traditional music are: Lila Downs, Susana Harp, Jaramar, GEO Meneses and Alejandra Robles. Popular groups are Café Tacuba, Caifanes, Molotov and Maná, among others. Since the early years of the 2000s (decade), Mexican rock has seen widespread growth both domestically and internationally.

According to the Sistema Nacional de Fomento Musical, there are between 120 and 140 youth orchestras affiliated to this federal agency from all federal states. Some states, through their state agencies in charge of culture and the arts—Ministry or Secretary or Institute or Council of Culture, or in some cases the Secretary of Education or the State University—sponsor the activities of a professional symphony orchestra or philharmonic crchestra so all citizens can have access to this artistic expression from the field of classical music. Mexico City is the most intense hub of this activity, hosting 12 professional orchestras sponsored by different agencies such as the National Institute of Fine Arts, the Secretary of Culture of the Federal District, The National University, the National Polytechnic Institute, a Delegación Política (Coyoacán) and private ventures.

Cuisine

Main article: Mexican cuisine

Mexican cuisine is known for its intense and varied flavors, colorful decoration, and variety of spices. Most of today's Mexican food is based on pre-Columbian traditions, including Aztec and Maya, combined with culinary trends introduced by Spanish colonists.

The conquistadores eventually combined their imported diet of rice, beef, pork, chicken, wine, garlic and onions with the native pre-Columbian food, including maize, tomato, vanilla, avocado, guava, papaya, pineapple, chili pepper, beans, squash, sweet potato, peanut, and turkey.

Mexican food varies by region, because of local climate and geography and ethnic differences among the indigenous inhabitants and because these different populations were influenced by the Spaniards in varying degrees. The north of Mexico is known for its beef, goat and ostrich production and meat dishes, in particular the well-known Arrachera cut.

Central Mexico's cuisine is largely made up of influences from the rest of the country, but also has its authentics, such as barbacoa, pozole, menudo, tamales, and carnitas.

Southeastern Mexico, on the other hand, is known for its spicy vegetable and chicken-based dishes. The cuisine of Southeastern Mexico also has quite a bit of Caribbean influence, given its geographical location. Veal is common in the Yucatan. Seafood is commonly prepared in the states that border the Pacific Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico, the latter having a famous reputation for its fish dishes, in particular à la veracruzana.

In modern times, other cuisines of the world have become very popular in Mexico, thus adopting a Mexican fusion. For example, sushi in Mexico is often made with a variety of sauces based on mango or tamarind, and very often served with serrano-chili-blended soy sauce, or complemented with vinegar, habanero and chipotle peppers

The most internationally recognized dishes include chocolate, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, burritos, tamales and mole among others. Regional dishes include mole poblano, chiles en nogada and chalupas from Puebla; cabrito and machaca from Monterrey, cochinita pibil from Yucatán, Tlayudas from Oaxaca, as well as barbacoa, chilaquiles, milanesas, and many others.

Mexican Cuisine
Tacos
Pozole
Tamales
Mole
Chile en nogada
Chilaquiles

Sports

Main article: Sport in Mexico

Mexico City hosted the XIX Olympic Games in 1968, making it the first Latin American city to do so.^[301] The country has also hosted the FIFA World Cup twice, in 1970 and 1986.^[302]

Mexico's most popular sport is association football (soccer). It is commonly believed that football was introduced in Mexico by Cornish miners at the end of the 19th century. By 1902 a five-team league had emerged with a strong British influence.^[303]^[304] Mexico's top clubs are América with 12 championships, Guadalajara with 11, and Toluca with 10.^[305] Antonio Carbajal was the first player to appear in five World Cups,^[306] and Hugo Sánchez was named best CONCACAF player of the 20th century by IFFHS.^[307]

The Mexican professional baseball league is named the Liga Mexicana de Beisbol. While usually not as strong as the United States, the Caribbean countries and Japan, Mexico has nonetheless achieved several international baseball titles. Mexico has had several players signed by Major League teams, the most famous of them being Dodgers pitcher Fernando Valenzuela.

In 2013, Mexico's basketball team won the Americas Basketball Championship and qualified for the 2014 Basketball World Cup where it reached the playoffs. Because of these achievements the country earned the hosting rights for the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship.^[308]

Bullfighting is a popular sport in the country, and almost all large cities have bullrings. Plaza México in Mexico City, is the largest bullring in the world, which seats 55,000 people. Professional wrestling (or Lucha libre in Spanish) is a major crowd draw with national promotions such as AAA, LLL, CMLL and others.

Mexico is an international power in professional boxing (at the amateur level, several Olympic boxing medals have also been won by Mexico). Vicente Saldivar, Rubén Olivares, Salvador Sánchez, Julio César Chávez, Ricardo Lopez and Erik Morales are but a few Mexican fighters who have been ranked among the best of all time.^[309]

Notable Mexican athletes include golfer Lorena Ochoa, who was ranked first in the LPGA world rankings prior to her retirement,^[310] Ana Guevara, former world champion of the 400 metres (1,300 ft) and Olympic subchampion in Athens 2004, and Fernando Platas, a numerous Olympic medal winning diver.

Sports in Mexico
Estadio BBVA Bancomer
Monterrey
Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez
Mexico City
Estadio Chivas
Guadalajara
Estadio de Béisbol Monterrey
Monterrey
Estadio Azteca
Mexico City
Acapulco Open
Acapulco

Health

Main article: Healthcare in Mexico

Since the early 1990s, Mexico entered a transitional stage in the health of its population and some indicators such as mortality patterns are identical to those found in highly developed countries like Germany or Japan.^[311] Mexico's medical infrastructure is highly rated for the most part and is usually excellent in major cities,^[312]^[313] but rural communities still lack equipment for advanced medical procedures, forcing patients in those locations to travel to the closest urban areas to get specialized medical care.^[108] Social determinants of health can be used to evaluate the state of health in Mexico.

State-funded institutions such as Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) and the Institute for Social Security and Services for State Workers (ISSSTE) play a major role in health and social security. Private health services are also very important and account for 13% of all medical units in the country.^[314]

Medical training is done mostly at public universities with much specializations done in vocational or internship settings. Some public universities in Mexico, such as the University of Guadalajara, have signed agreements with the U.S. to receive and train American students in Medicine. Health care costs in private institutions and prescription drugs in Mexico are on average lower than that of its North American economic partners.^[312]

Education

Main article: Education in Mexico

Central Library of he National Autonomous University of Mexico.

In 2004, the literacy rate was at 97%^[315] for youth under the age of 14 and 91% for people over 15,^[316] placing Mexico at the 24th place in the world rank according to UNESCO.^[317]

The National Autonomous University of Mexico ranks 190th place in the Top 200 World University Ranking published by The Times Higher Education Supplement in 2009.^[318] Private business schools also stand out in international rankings. IPADE and EGADE, the business schools of Universidad Panamericana and of Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education respectively, were ranked in the top 10 in a survey conducted by The Wall Street Journal among recruiters outside the United States.^[319]

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1 2 SENER 2009b
↑ Sonora Energy Group Hermosillo
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↑ Unravelling unidentified γ-ray sources with the large millimeter telescope, Alberto Carramiñana and the LMT-GTM collaboration, in The Multi-Messenger Approach to High-Energy Gamma-Ray Sources, Josep M. Paredes, Olaf Reimer, and Diego F. Torres, eds., Springer Netherlands, 2007. ISBN 978-1-4020-6117-2.
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1 2 3 "CIA World Factbook". CIA. Retrieved December 20, 2010.
↑ With data from The World Factbook
1 2 "Mexico reviving travel by train". Azcentral.com. January 6, 2006. Retrieved October 30, 2010.
↑ "Bullet Train To Mexico City Looks To Be Back On Track ?". Guadalajara Reporter. October 17, 2003. Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. Retrieved October 30, 2010.
1 2 "Project for a Mexico City – Guadalajara High Speed Line. Rail transport engineering, public transport engineering". Systra. Retrieved October 30, 2010.
↑ "Slim to invest in Santa Cruz". The America's Intelligence Wire. January 21, 2005. Archived from the original on January 18, 2012.
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1 2 Wimmer, Andreas, 2002. Nationalist Exclusion and Ethnic Conflict: Shadows of Modernity, Cambridge University Press page 115
↑ Hall Steckel, Richard; R. Haines, Michael (2000). A population history of North America. Cambridge University Press. p. 621. ISBN 0-521-49666-7.
↑ Knight, Alan. 1990. "Racism, Revolution and indigenismo: Mexico 1910–1940". Chapter 4 in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940. Richard Graham (ed.) pp. 78–85)
↑ "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" (PDF). Academic investigation (in Spanish). university of the State of Mexico. 2005. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
↑ Bartolomé, Miguel Alberto (1996). "Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México". in Coloquio sobre derechos indígenas" (PDF). Oaxaca: IOC. p. 2. En primer lugar cabe destacar que en México la pertenencia racial no es un indicador relevante ni suficiente para denotar una adscripción étnica específica. [...] Por lo tanto es relativamente factible realizar el llamado tránsito étnico, es decir que un indígena puede llegar a incorporarse al sector mestizo a través de la renuncia a su cultura tradicional y si sus condiciones materiales se lo permiten.
↑ Knight, Alan (September 1, 2010). "The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940". In Richard Graham. The Idea of Race in Latin America: 1870–1940. University of Texas Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-292-78888-6. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
↑ Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.) (2008). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. Sage. p. 900. ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2. In New Spain, there was no strict idea of race (something that continued in Mexico). The Indians that had lost their connections with their communities and had adopted different cultural elements could "pass" and be considered mestizos. The same applied to Blacks and castas.
↑ Wade, Peter (May 20, 1997). Race And Ethnicity In Latin America. Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-0987-3. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
↑ "mestizo (people)". Britannica.com. Retrieved October 30, 2010.
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↑ Chiamaka Nwosu, Jeanne Batalova, and Gregory Auclair (April 28, 2014). "Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States". Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
↑ Wade, Peter. 1997. Race and Ethnicity in Latin America. Pluto Press.
↑ Knight, Alan. 1990. "Racism, Revolution and indigenismo: Mexico 1910–1940". Chapter 4 in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940. Richard Graham (ed.) pp. pp. 78–85)
↑ Bartolomé, Miguel Alberto. (1996) "Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México". in Coloquio sobre derechos indígenas, Oaxaca, IOC. p.5)
↑ Salzano FM, Sans M. Interethnic admixture and the evolution of Latin American populations. Genet Mol Biol. 2014 March; 37(1 Suppl):151-70. PMID 24764751 PMC 3983580
↑ Bartolomé, Miguel Alberto. (1996) "Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México". in Coloquio sobre derechos indígenas, Oaxaca, IOC. p. 2)
↑ Wade (1997:44–47)
1 2 Navarrete, Federico. "El mestizaje y las culturas" [Mixed race and cultures]. México Multicultural (in Spanish). Mexico: UNAM. Retrieved July 19, 2011.
↑ Sharon R. Ennis, Merarys Ríos-Vargas, Nora G. Albert (May 2011). http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf U.S. Census Bureau, p. 14 (Table 6). Retrieved 2011-07-11.
↑ FIG.No.4: Large differences in the variation of individual admixture estimates were seen across populations, with the variance in Native American ancestry between individuals ranging from 0.005 in Quetalmahue to 0.07 in Mexico City.
↑ "Al respecto no debe olvidarse que en estos países buena parte de las personas consideradas biológicamente blancas son mestizas en el aspecto cultural, el que aquí nos interesa (p. 196)" (PDF). Redalyc.org. March 16, 2005. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
1 2 In one population sample, paternal ancestry was predominately European (64.9%), followed by Native American (30.8%) and African (4.2%). However, the European ancestry was prevalent in the north and west (66.7–75%) and, conversely, Native American ancestry increased in the center and southeast (37–50%), whereas the African ancestry was low and relatively homogeneous (0–8.8%), Journal of Human Genetics.
↑ pubmeddev. "Genetic structure of the populations migrating from San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas to Nuevo León in Mexico.". Retrieved September 10, 2014.
↑ "Mestizaje and Indigenous Identities". manchester.ac.uk. Retrieved August 25, 2015.
↑ Los-indios-barbaros-de.html Archived January 1, 1970, at the Wayback Machine.
1 2 3 "John P. Schmal, SomosPrimos.com". somosprimos.com.
↑ Defined as persons who live in a household where an indigenous language is spoken by one of the adult family members, and or people who self identified as indigenous ("Criteria del hogar: De esta manera, se establece, que los hogares indígenas son aquellos en donde el jefe y/o el cónyuge y/o padre o madre del jefe y/o suegro o suegra del jefe hablan una lengua indígena y también aquellos que declararon pertenecer a un grupo indígena.")AND persons who speak an indigenous language but who do not live in such a household (Por lo antes mencionado, la Comisión Nacional Para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas de México (CDI) considera población indígena (PI) a todas las personas que forman parte de un hogar indígena, donde el jefe(a) del hogar, su cónyuge y/o alguno de los ascendientes (madre o padre, madrastra o padrastro, abuelo(a), bisabuelo(a), tatarabuelo(a), suegro(a)) declaro ser hablante de lengua indígena. Además, también incluye a personas que declararon hablar alguna lengua indígena y que no forman parte de estos hogares )
↑ National Commission for the Development of the Indigenous Peoples
↑ Knight (1990:73–74)
↑ Bartolomé (1996:3–4)
↑ "Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas. México". Cdi.gob.mx. Retrieved December 10, 2011.
1 2 "La Población Indigena en México" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). Retrieved July 17, 2013.
↑ "Manta - The Place for Small Business". Manta.
↑ Los árabes de México. Asimilación y herencia cultural Rosa E. García Ita (Marín-Guzmán, R. y Zeraoui, Z. (2003). Arab Immigration in Mexico in the nineteenth and twentieth Centuries. Assimilation and Arab Heritage. Austin: Augustine Press, ITESM)
↑ "Hasta cuándo se va a reconocer a los afromexicanos". Animal Politico. Retrieved November 1, 2014.
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1 2 "Negro? Prieto? Moreno? A Question of Identity for Black Mexicans". New York Times. Retrieved November 1, 2014.
↑ Encuesta Intercensal 2015 inegi.org.mx
↑ "Documento Informativo sobre Discriminación Racial en México" (PDF). CONAPRED. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
↑ Journal of Human Genetics. "Results of the study per state". Nature.com. Retrieved May 5, 2014.
↑ Journal of Human Genetics. "List of chromosomes found in Mexico". Nature.com. Retrieved May 5, 2014.
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↑ "Encuesta Intercensal 2015" (PDF). INEGI, México.
↑ INEGI [Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, Geografia e Informática] (2005). Perfil sociodemográfica de la populación hablante de náhuatl (PDF). XII Censo General de Población y Vivienda 2000 (in Spanish) (Publicación única ed.). Aguascalientes, Mex.: INEGI. ISBN 970-13-4491-X. Retrieved December 2, 2008.
↑ 2000 census; the numbers are based on the number of total population for each group and the percentages of speakers given on the website of the Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=660, accessed July 28, 2008).
↑ "Catalogo de las lenguas indígenas nacionales: Variantes lingüísticas de México con sus autodenominaciones y referencias geoestadísticas". Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas. November 16, 2007. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
↑ INALI [Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas] (January 14, 2008). "Catálogo de las lenguas indígenas nacionales: Variantes lingüísticas de México con sus autodenominaciones y referencias geoestadísticas" (PDF online facsimile). Diario Oficial de la Federación (in Spanish) (México, D.F.: Imprenta del Gobierno Federal, SEGOB) 652 (9): 22–78 (first section),1–96 (second section),1–112 (third section). OCLC 46461036.
↑ "Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas (General Law of the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples)" (PDF) (in Spanish). CDI México. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007. Retrieved October 2, 2007.
↑ "The Mennonite Old Colony Vision: Under siege in Mexico and the Canadian Connection" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2007. Retrieved May 30, 2007.
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↑ "Mexico, Country profile". The Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Days Saints Newsroom. Archived from the original on August 25, 2010. Retrieved March 4, 2011.
↑ Ludlow, Daniel H. (1994). Encyclopedia of Mormonism. pp. 4:1527. ISBN 0-87579-924-8.
↑ Primack, Karen (1998). Jews in places you never thought of. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-88125-608-6.
↑ "International Religious Freedom Report 2009". US Department of State. Retrieved July 13, 2010.
↑ "Mayans in Mexico's Chiapas Region Convert to Islam". Wwrn.org. February 18, 2005. Retrieved October 30, 2010.
↑ Valdés, Margarita M. (1995). Nussbaum M. e Glover J., ed. Inequality in capabilities between men and women in Mexico. pp. 426–433. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
↑ "Femicide and Impunity in Mexico: A context of structural and generalized violence" (PDF). Retrieved March 12, 2014.
↑ "Health Profile: Mexico". United States Agency for International Development (June 2008). Accessed September 7, 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
1 2 "Wave Of Femicide Surges Across Mexico, Killing 6 Women Per Day". Huffington Post. 8 Jan 2015. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
↑ Finkler, Kaja (1997). "Gender, domestic violence and sickness in Mexico.". Social Science & Medicine 45 (8): 1147–1160. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(97)00023-3. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
↑ Vasconcelos, José (1997). La Raza Cósmica (The Cosmic Race). Didier T. Jaén (translator). The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 160. ISBN 0-8018-5655-8.
↑ "Rockefeller Controversy". Diego Rivera Prints. Retrieved October 2, 2007.
↑ "Televisa Brings 2006 FIFA World Cup to Mexico in HD With Snell & Wilcox Kahuna SD/HD Production Switcher". Press release. Snell & Wilcox. June 27, 2006. Archived from the original on August 11, 2006. Retrieved September 30, 2007.
↑ "2016 Binational Olympics". San Diego Metropolitan. December 2003. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
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↑ "Introduction". Federacion Mexicana de Futbol. Archived from the original on April 1, 2008.
↑ "Mexico – List of Final Tables". Rec.Sports.Soccer Statistics Foundation.
↑ "Mexico – List of Champions". Rec.Sports.Soccer Statistics Foundation.
↑ "CNNSI.com – 2002 World Cup — World Cup Hall of Fame: Antonio Carbajal — Wednesday May 08, 2002 10:46 PM". Sportsillustrated.cnn.com. May 8, 2002. Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
↑ "Hugo Sánchez donó trofeos pichichi y mejor jugador CONCACAF al Real Madrid" (in Spanish). Terra.com. January 14, 2008. Retrieved July 17, 2013.
↑ "FIBA – Mexico to host 2015 FIBA Americas Championship". FIBA. Retrieved October 12, 2014.
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Navarrete Linares, Federico (2008). Los pueblos indígenas de México (PDF online facsimile). Pueblos Indígenas del México Contemporáneo series (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas. ISBN 978-970-753-157-4. OCLC 319215886.

Satish Kumar*, Claire Bellis, Mark Zlojutro, Phillip E Melton, John Blangero and Joanne E Curran (2011). Large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexican Americans suggests a reappraisal of Native American origins (PDF).

Bibliography

Camp, Roderic A. Politics in Mexico: Democratic Consolidation Or Decline? (Oxford University Press, 2014)
Davis, Diane. Urban Leviathan: Mexico City in the Twentieth Century (Temple University Press, 2010)
Domínguez, Jorge I (2004). "The Scholarly Study of Mexican Politics". Mexican Studies / Estudios Mexicanos 20 (2): 377–410.
Edmonds-Poli, Emily, and David Shirk. Contemporary Mexican Politics (Rowman and Littlefield 2009)
Kirkwood, Burton. The History of Mexico (Greenwood, 2000) online edition
Krauze, Enrique (1998). Mexico: Biography of Power: A history of Modern Mexico 1810–1996. New York: Harper Perennial. p. 896. ISBN 0-06-092917-0.
Meyer, Michael C.; Beezley, William H., eds. (2000). The Oxford History of Mexico. Oxford University Press. p. 736. ISBN 0-19-511228-8.
Levy, Santiago. Good intentions, bad outcomes: Social policy, informality, and economic growth in Mexico (Brookings Institution Press, 2010)
Meyer, Michael C., William L. Sherman, and Susan M. Deeds. The Course of Mexican History (7th ed. Oxford U.P., 2002) online edition
Russell, Philip (2010). The history of Mexico: from pre-conquest to present. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-87237-9. Retrieved July 9, 2010.
Tannenbaum, Frank. Mexico: The Struggle for Peace and Bread (2013)
Werner, Michael S. ed. Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society & Culture (2 vol 1997) 1440pp online edition
- Werner, Michael S. ed. Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico (2001) 850pp; a selection of unrevised articles

External links

The Presidency of Mexico
Mexico Tourism Official Website | VisitMexico
Mexico entry at The World Factbook
Mexico from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Mexico at DMOZ
Mexico from the BBC News
Mexico at Encyclopædia Britannica
Wikimedia Atlas of Mexico
Mexico travel guide from Wikivoyage
Key Development Forecasts for Mexico from International Futures
Mexico by World Painters.

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Mexico

Etymology

History

Ancient cultures

Post-classic period (700–1519 AD)

Spanish conquest (1519)

Colonial period (1519–1821)

Period of the conquest (1521–1650)

The colonial period (1650–1821)

Independence from Spain (1821)

Birth of Mexico (1821)

Territorial losses and Juárez reforms (1821-1876)

Porfiriato (1876–1910)

Mexican Revolution (1910–29)

One-party rule (1929–2000)

End of one-party rule (2000–present)

Geography

Climate

Biodiversity

Government and politics

Government

Politics

Law enforcement

Crime

Foreign relations

Military

Administrative divisions

Economy

Communications

Energy

Science and technology

Tourism

Transportation

Water supply and sanitation

Demographics

Mestizo

Mexicans of European descent

Indigenous peoples

Arab Mexicans

Afro-Mexicans

Population genetics

Languages

Urban areas

Religion

Women

Culture

Literature

Visual arts

Cinema

Media

Music

Cuisine

Sports

Health

Education

See also

References

Bibliography

External links