New York City English

"New York English" redirects here. For other uses, see New York English (disambiguation).

New York City English is a regional dialect of American English spoken by many people in New York City and much of its surrounding metropolitan area. Described by sociolinguist William Labov as the most recognizable dialect in North America, the dialect is known through its association in the media with many public figures and fictional characters. Its features are most densely concentrated in New York City proper and its immediate suburbs, but also extend to the wider metropolitan area and the New York City diaspora in other regions. The dialect is widely known for a number of both conservative and innovative pronunciation features, such as a lack of the cot–caught, Mary–marry–merry, and hurry–furry mergers; r-dropping (except before a vowel); a high, gliding /ɔː/ vowel (in words like talk and caught); and a pronunciation split of the "short a" vowel /æ/ into two separate sounds.

Geographic boundaries

New York State

New York City English is confined to a geographically small but densely populated area, including all five boroughs of New York City, but not all of New York State; an entirely separate dialect predominates in central and western New York State, especially along the Great Lakes.[1] However, New York City English does extend beyond the city proper, including in western Long Island (although the boundaries there are not clearly established).[2][3][4] Moreover, the English of the Hudson Valley forms a continuum of speakers who gather more features of New York City English the closer they are in geographic relation to the city itself;[1] some of the dialect's features may be heard as far north as the city of Albany.[5]

New Jersey

The northeast quarter of New Jersey, prominently Bergen and Passaic counties, including the cities Weehawken, Hoboken, Jersey City, Bayonne, and Newark,[6] plus Middlesex and Monmouth Counties, are all within the New York City metropolitan area and thus also home to the major features of New York City English. With the exception of New York City's immediate neighbors like Jersey City and Newark,[1]:{{{1}}} the New York metropolitan dialect as spoken in New Jersey is rhotic (or fully r-pronouncing), so that, whereas a Brooklynite might pronounce "over there" something like "ovah theah/deah" [oʊvə ˈd̪ɛə], an Elizabeth native might say "over there/dare" [oʊvɚ ˈd̪ɛɚ]. Also, New Jersey lacks a phonemic short-a split in some places, though the Atlas of North American English by William Labov et al. shows that the New York City short-a pattern has diffused to many r-pronouncing communities in northern New Jersey like Rutherford (Labov's birthplace) and North Plainfield. However, the short-a system in these communities often loses the function word constraint and/or the open syllable constraint of the NYC system. Regarding vocabulary, New York City shibboleths like hero (for a submarine sandwich) are less used than the more widespread sub or submarine, but it is sometimes found.

Notable lifelong native speakers

The following is a list of notable lifelong native speakers of the rhotic New York City English of northeastern New Jersey:

History

The origins of New York City English are diverse, and the source of many features is probably not recoverable. New York City English, largely with the same pronunciation system popularly recognized today, was first reproduced in literature and also scientifically documented in the 1890s.[20] It was then, and still mostly is, associated with ethnically diverse European-American members of the lower-middle and working class. New York City English likely evolved from an older variety that encompassed the Mid-Atlantic region (whose unique modern-day dialect centers around Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Baltimore, Maryland), since the New York City dialect and the Mid-Atlantic dialectal offshoots still all share certain key features that originated nowhere else the United States, such as a high /ɔː/ vowel with a glide (as in coffee sounding like cawffee) and a phonemic split of the short a /æ/ (making gas and gap, for example, have different vowels sounds), though the New York City variant of this split remains unique. In general, New York City English has much in common with, though differs in several other respects from, nearby Philadelphia English, whose pronunciation features continue evolving at a rapid pace away from New York City-like features, starting sometime after 1900 but before World War II (though some of these more innovative Philadelphia features have, since World War II, become subject to "generalization" or even complete reversal).

Labov has pointed out that a similarly-structured but distinct-sounding short-a split, often called the trap–bath split, is found today in southern England, and that its inciting condition may have also been an ancestor of the short-a split now heard in the New York City and Mid-Atlantic dialects.[1]:{{{1}}} According to Labov, the vocalization and subsequent loss of the R sound after vowels found in New York City (but not found in the Mid-Atlantic dialect region) is an imitation of the prestigious London pronunciation, and so it started among the upper classes in New York before spreading to other socioeconomic classes. This non-rhotic (R-dropping) aristocratic pronunciation can be heard, for instance, in recordings of Franklin D. Roosevelt. After WWII, perceptions reversed and the R-ful (rhotic) pronunciation became the prestige norm throughout the U.S. and what was once the upper-class pronunciation then became perceived as more of a vernacular one, with the loss of Britain's imperial status, and because of the predominance of the more mainstream American rhotic accent.[21] Today, most New York City English is variably rhotic rather than non-rhotic, since non-rhotic speakers are typically stigmatized and/or associated with the lower middle or working class. This more recent socio-cultural association has, in fact, since the latter half of the 20th century, led many upper- and middle-class New Yorkers to refrain from speaking with a New York accent altogether and to always pronounce all R sounds.[22]

Other vernacular pronunciations, such as the dental d and t, may come from contact with languages such as Italian and Yiddish. Grammatical structures, such as the lack of inversion in indirect questions, have the flavor of contact with an immigrant language. As stated above, many words common in New York are of immigrant roots.[23]

Influence on other dialects

New York City English influenced Philadelphia English, since, for example, Philadelphia speakers exhibit an evidently simplified subset of the original, more complex short-a system of New York City.[24] Due to an influx of immigrants from New York and New Jersey to Florida, some in that region speak with an accent reminiscent of New York City English. Additionally, as a result of social and commercial contact between the two cities, and the influx of immigrants from the same countries, the traditional dialect of New Orleans, Louisiana, known locally as Yat, bears distinctive similarities with the New York dialect, including the (moribund) coil–curl merger, raising of /ɔː/ to [ɔə], a similar split in the short-a system, and th-stopping. Therefore, older New York City English presumably influenced dialect evolution in working-class speakers of New Orleans (and possibly vice-versa), as well as of Cincinnati, Ohio, whose older speakers today have a short-a split system that appears to be an expanded or generalized variant of the New York City short-a system. Unsurprisingly, some New York City dialect features also appear in New York Latino English.

Linguistic features

Pronunciation

The pronunciation system of New York City English, popularly known as a New York accent, is heard in New York City, western Long Island, and northeastern New Jersey.[25] See the article International Phonetic Alphabet for explanations of the phonetic symbols used, as indicated between square brackets [ ]. The New York metropolitan dialect is predominantly characterized by the following sounds and speech patterns:

Vowels

Consonants

While the following consonantal features are central to the common stereotype of a "New York accent", they are not entirely ubiquitous in New York. By contrast, the vocalic (vowel) variations in pronunciation as described above are far more typical of New York area speakers than the consonantal features listed below, which carry a much greater stigma than do the dialect's vocalic variations:

Syntax

Vocabulary

There are numerous words used mainly in Greater New York City, mostly associated with immigrant languages. For instance, a "stoop" (from the Dutch word "stoep") is the front steps of a building entrance. A curious split in usage, reflective of the city's racial differences, involves the word punk. In the Black and Latino communities, the word tends to be used as a synonym for weak, someone unwilling or unable to defend himself or perhaps loser. That usage appears to descend from the AAVE meaning of male receptive participant in anal sex,[41] a meaning which, in turn, may be largely lost among youth. Thus, a newspaper article that refers to, say, some arrested muggers as punks can have two different meanings to two different readers.

New Yorkers stand "on line," whereas most other American-English speakers stand "in line." Small convenience stores are, in recent decades, often called bodegas, from the Spanish term originally meaning "a wine storehouse" via the Puerto Rican Spanish term for "small store; corner store", or delis, which is the short form of delicatessen.

Macrosocial variability

Geographic variation

Despite common references to a "Bronx accent" or a "Brooklyn accent," no published study has found any feature that varies internally within the dialect due to any sort of geographic differences.[42] Impressions that the dialect varies geographically may be a byproduct of class and/or ethnic variation.

Ethnic variation

The classic New York dialect is centered on middle- and working-class White Americans, and this ethnic cluster now accounts for less than half of the city's population, within which there is even some degree of ethnic variation. The variations of New York City English are a result of the layering of ethnic speech starting with the native Lenape tribe and the influence from the waves of immigrants that settled in the city, from the earliest settlement by the Dutch and English, followed in the 1800s by the Irish and western Europeans (typically of French, German, and Scandinavian descent). Over time these collective influences combined to give New York its distinctive accent.[43] Up until the immigration acts of 1920 and 1924 that restricted southern and eastern European immigration, many Eastern European Jewish and Italian immigrants, as well as some later immigrants, arrived and further affected the region's speech. Sociolinguistic research, which is ongoing, suggests some differentiation between these last groups' speech may exist. For example, William Labov found differences in the rate and degree of the tensing and raising of /ɔː/ (often, [ɔə~oə]) and the split /æ/ (often, [ɛə~eə]) of Italian American versus Jewish American New Yorkers. Jewish Americans were more likely than other groups to use the closest variants of /ɔː/ (meaning towards [ʊə]) and Italian Americans were more likely than other groups to use the closest variants of /æ/ (meaning towards [ɪə]).[44] In the NPR interview linked below, Labov talks about Irish origin features being the most stigmatized. Still, Labov argues that these differences are relatively minor, more of degree than kind. All European American groups share the relevant features.

One area that is likely to reveal robust patterns is usage among Orthodox Jews. Such features include fully released final stops and certain Yiddish contact features, such as topicalizations of direct objects (e.g., constructions such as Esther, she saw! or A dozen knishes, you bought!). There is also substantial use of Yiddish and particularly Hebrew words. It could be argued that such features are not characteristic of New York dialect because they exist among Orthodox Jews in other dialect regions. Still, in combination with other New York dialect features they are characteristic of a specific local ethno-religious community. There is no research, however, establishing these facts in the New York dialect literature.

Many African American New Yorkers speak African American Vernacular English (AAVE), though with some New York City English features,.[45] Many Latinos speak another distinct ethnolect, New York Latino English, characterized by a varying mix of traditional New York dialect and African American vernacular features along with some features of Spanish origin.[45][46] Middle Eastern Americans, especially those of Syrian descent speak their own version of the accent.

Social-class variation

Many professional-class New Yorkers from high socioeconomic backgrounds often speak with less conspicuous accents; in particular, many use rhotic pronunciations instead of the non-rhotic pronunciations, while maintaining some less stigmatized features such as the short-a split (see below).

Similarly, the children of professional migrants from other parts of the U.S. usually do not have many, if any, New York dialect features.[22] As these two populations come to dominate the southern half of Manhattan and neighboring parts of Brooklyn, the dialect is in retreat in some of the more gentrified parts of the city. Many New Yorkers from affluent socioeconomic backgrounds are barely linguistically recognizable as New Yorkers except in their pronunciation of the broad A in "water" and other Northeastern characteristics.[22] Nevertheless, many New Yorkers, particularly from the middle and working class, maintain a clear New York accent.[22]

Notable speakers

The accent has a strong presence in media; pioneer variationist sociolinguist William Labov describes it as the most recognizable variety of North American English.[47] The following famous people or fictional characters are often heard in public as speaking with features typical of a New York accent. Most, but not all, are native New Yorkers. Their pronunciation and vocabulary can be useful guides to the subtleties of speaking New York.

See also

References

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Labov, William, Sharon Ash, & Charles Boberg (2006) Atlas of North American English DeGruyter ISBN 3-11-016746-8
  2. ↑ Labov, William. 2010. Principles of Linguistic Change, V. 3: Cognitive and Cultural Factors. Cambridge/NY Cambridge University Press. Chapter 15, footnote 13. p.390
  3. ↑ Bakht, Maryam (2010) Lexical variation and the negotiation of linguistic style in a Long Island middle school unpublished doctoral dissertation NYU
  4. ↑ Olivo, Ann Marie (2013) The Strong Island Sound: Sociolinguistic Evidence for Emerging American Ethnicities. unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rice University
  5. ↑ Labov, William (2007). "Transmission and Diffusion". Language 83 (2): 344–387. doi:10.1353/lan.2007.0082.
  6. ↑ Labov, William (2007) "Transmission and Diffusion", Language June 2007 p. 17
  7. ↑ Morales, Tatiana (September 27, 2005). "Backstage With Bon Jovi: 'Have A Nice Day' Tour Officially Kicks Off In November". CBS News. Retrieved January 26, 2009.
  8. ↑ Flint Marx, Rebecca. "Danny DeVito: Biography". allmovie. Retrieved July 28, 2008.
  9. ↑ Plotinsky, Benjamin A. (July–August 2007). "At Home with "The Sopranos"". Commentary Magazine. Retrieved July 28, 2008.
  10. ↑ Rose, Lisa (November 2007). "Gandolfini sings". The Star-Ledger. Retrieved July 28, 2008.
  11. ↑ Hunter, Stephen (March 16, 2001). "'Enemy at the Gates': Mighty Scope, Bad Aim". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 3, 2008.
  12. ↑ Labov, William (October 1, 1997). "How I Got Into Linguistics, and What I Got Out of It". University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved November 20, 2008.
  13. ↑ Iley, Chrissy (April 9, 2007). "I'm in tune with my feelings". London: The Guardian. Archived from the original on August 31, 2013. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
  14. ↑ Phillips, Andrew (January 16, 2003). "INTERVIEW: Goodfellas Ray Liotta: and how I learned that you should never steal from a wise guy". GW Hatchet. Retrieved July 28, 2008.
  15. ↑ Blumenfeld, Robert (2002). Accents: A Manual for Actors 1. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 166. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
  16. ↑ Holden, Stephen (August 9, 1992). "When the Boss Fell to Earth, He Hit Paradise". The New York Times. Retrieved July 28, 2008.
  17. ↑ "Slip of the tongue? Queens accent may be fading away". NY Daily News. Retrieved 2016-01-03.
  18. ↑ Ferrari, Chiara Francesca (2011-01-15). Since When Is Fran Drescher Jewish?: Dubbing Stereotypes in The Nanny, The Simpsons, and The Sopranos. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292739550.
  19. ↑ Stamler, Bernard (1998-09-20). "Talking the Tawk; New Yorkers Are Sounding More Like Everybody Else. Is It Curtains for the Accent People Love to Hate?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-01-03.
  20. ↑ Mencken, H. L. (1919; reprinted 2012). American Language, 4th Edition. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 367
  21. 1 2 Labov (1966/2006)
  22. 1 2 3 4 "Why the classic Noo Yawk accent is fading away". New York Post. June 2, 2010. Retrieved April 13, 2013.
  23. ↑ Labov 1972
  24. ↑ Ash, Sharon (2002). "The Distribution of a Phonemic Split in the Mid-Atlantic Region: Yet More on Short a." University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics. University of Pennsylvania. p. 1
  25. ↑ McClear, Sheila (2010). "Why the classic Noo Yawk accent is fading away". New York Post. NYP Holdings, Inc.
  26. ↑ Heggarty, Paul et al, eds. (2013). "Accents of English from Around the World". University of Edinburgh.
  27. 1 2 Gordon, Matthew (2004) "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities" in Kortmann, Bernd & Schneider, Edgar W. (Eds.) A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3-11-017532-0 p. 286
  28. 1 2 Gordon, Matthew (2004) "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities" in Kortmann, Bernd & Schneider, Edgar W. (Eds.) A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3-11-017532-0 p. 288
  29. ↑ Trager, George L. (1940) One Phonemic Entity Becomes Two: The Case of 'Short A' in American Speech: 3rd ed. Vol. 15: Duke UP. 256. Print.
  30. ↑ Labov, William (2006) "The Social Stratification of English in New York City": Second Edition. Cambridge University Press. Print.
  31. ↑ Gordon, Matthew (2004) "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities" in Kortmann, Bernd & Schneider, Edgar W. (Eds.) A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3-11-017532-0 pp. 292, 285 , 287
  32. ↑ Labov et al., p. 234
  33. ↑ Gordon, Matthew (2004) "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities" in Kortmann, Bernd & Schneider, Edgar W. (Eds.) A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3-11-017532-0 pp. 287, 285
  34. 1 2 Gordon, Matthew (2004) "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities" in Kortmann, Bernd & Schneider, Edgar W. (Eds.) A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3-11-017532-0 pp. 285, 288
  35. ↑ Gordon, Matthew (2004) "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities" in Kortmann, Bernd & Schneider, Edgar W. (Eds.) A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3-11-017532-0 pp. 286-287
  36. ↑ Gordon, Matthew (2004) "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities" in Kortmann, Bernd & Schneider, Edgar W. (Eds.) A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3110175320 p. 289
  37. ↑ Gordon, Matthew (2004) "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities" in Kortmann, Bernd & Schneider, Edgar W. (Eds.) A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3-11-017532-0 pp. 288-289
  38. ↑ Labov (1966:36–37)
  39. 1 2 Gordon, Matthew (2004) "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities" in Kortmann, Bernd & Schneider, Edgar W. (Eds.) A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology Walter de Gruyter ISBN 3-11-017532-0 p. 289
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  41. ↑ Spears, Arthur African American language: Ideology and so-called obscenity in Salikoko Mufwene, John Rickford, Guy Bailey and John Baugh (Eds.) African American English: Structure, History, and Use. London: Routledge. pp. 226–250
  42. ↑ Gordon, Matthew (2004) "New York, Philadelphia, and other northern cities" in Schneider, E. W., Kortmann, B. (2005), "A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multi-Media Reference Tool", Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-017532-0, p. 284
  43. ↑ "challenge". Nyc24.jrn.columbia.edu. Retrieved November 26, 2013.
  44. ↑ Labov, William (1973) Sociolinguistic Patterns U. of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 0-8122-1052-2
  45. 1 2 Fought, Carmen Language and Ethnicity Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press 2006, p. 19
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  47. ↑ Labov, William. 1966/1996. The Social Stratification of English in New York City 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 18
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  53. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Blumenfeld, Robert (2013). "Teach Yourself New York City Accents". Teach Yourself Accents - North America: A Handbook for Young Actors and Speakers. Limelight Editions. ISBN 0879108088.
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