Bangladesh

Bangladesh (ⁱ/ˌbæŋɡləˈdɛʃ/; /ˌbɑːŋɡləˈdɛʃ/; বাংলাদেশ, pronounced: [ˈbaŋlad̪eʃ], lit. "The land of Bengal"), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh (গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ Gônôprôjatôntri Bangladesh), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It forms the major part of the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. Located at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh is bordered by India and Myanmar and is separated from Nepal and Bhutan by the narrow Siliguri Corridor.^[7] Bangladesh is the world's eighth-most populous country, the fifth most populous in Asia and the third-most populous among Muslim-majority countries. The official Bengali language is the sixth most-spoken native language in the world, which Bangladesh shares with the neighboring Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura.

Three of Asia's largest rivers, the Ganges (locally known as the Padma), the Brahmaputra (locally known as the Jamuna) and the Meghna, flow through Bangladesh and form the fertile Bengal delta- the largest delta in the world.^[8] With rich biodiversity, Bangladesh is home to 700 rivers, most of the world's largest mangrove forest; rainforested and tea-growing highlands; a 600 km (370 mi) coastline with one of the world's longest beaches; and various islands, including a coral reef. Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, ranking alongside South Korea and Monaco. Urban centers are spread across the country, with the capital Dhaka and the port city Chittagong being the most prominent. The predominant ethnic group are Bengalis, along with numerous minorities, including Chakmas, Garos, Marmas, Tanchangyas, Bisnupriya Manipuris, Santhals, Biharis, Oraons, Tripuris, Mundas, Rakhines and Rohingyas. The religion of state and the majority is Islam,^[9] followed by Hinduism, Buddhism and Christianity.^[10]

Civilization has flourished in the Bengal delta for millennia. The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai.^[11] An entrepot of the historic Silk Road,^[12] especially the worldwide muslin trade,^[13] the people of the delta developed their own language, script, literature, music, art and architecture. The area was Islamised under the influence of Sufism, particularly during the medieval Bengal Sultanate and the Mughal Empire.^[14] Nationalism, social reforms and the arts developed in the 19th and early 20th centuries under British colonialism, and the region played an important role in the anti-colonial movement of the subcontinent.

The Partition of British India, including the partition of Bengal, established the present-day borders of Bangladesh in 1947, when East Bengal became part of the Dominion of Pakistan; later becoming East Pakistan in 1955. It was separated from West Pakistan by 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) of Indian territory. East Pakistan was home to the country's demographic majority, its legislative capital and its most exported commodities.^[15]^[16] Due to political exclusion, ethnic and linguistic discrimination and economic neglect by the politically dominant western wing; Bengali civil disobedience led to the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, involving India, Pakistan and the Provisional Government of Bangladesh, with its military wing, the Mukti Bahini. In subsequent decades, the new state endured challenges of poverty, natural disasters, corruption, overpopulation, illiteracy, political instability and military coups. However, Bangladesh has achieved significant progress in social indicators of human development, including improved gender parity, universal primary education, maternal and child health, food production and population control.^[17]^[18]^[19] The poverty rate has reduced from 57% in 1990 to 25.6% in 2014.^[20]

A major developing country, Bangladesh is a Next Eleven emerging economy. It is a constitutional unitary parliamentary republic, with an elected parliament called the Jatiyo Sangshad. Bangladesh has the third-largest economy and military in South Asia after India and Pakistan. It is a founding member of SAARC and hosts the headquarters of the Bay of Bengal Initiative.^[21] The country is the world's largest contributor to United Nations peacekeeping.^[22] It is a member of the Developing 8 Countries, the OIC, the Commonwealth of Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Group of 77, the Non Aligned Movement, BCIM, the Indian Ocean Rim Association and BBIN. The country has significant natural resources, including natural gas, limestone and coal. Agriculture mainly produces rice, jute and tea. Bangladesh's major trading partners include Japan, the United States, the European Union and the surrounding nations of China, Malaysia and India.

Etymology

The name Bangladesh was originally written as two words, Bangla Desh. Starting in the 1950s, Bengali nationalists used the term in political rallies in East Pakistan. The term Bangla is a major name for both the Bengal region and the Bengali language. The earliest references to the term date to the Nesari plate in 805 AD. The term "Vangaladesa" is found in South Indian records in the 11th century.^[23]^[24]^[25]

The term gained official status during the Sultanate of Bengal in the 14th century.^[26]^[27] Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the first "Shah of Bangala" in 1342.^[26] Persian writers frequently used the term Bangala to refer to the Bengal Sultanate. The word Bangla became the most common name for the region during the Islamic period. Taking a cue from the Persianate term, the Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the 16th century.^[28]

This probably gave rise to the English term Bengal. The origins of the term Bangla are unclear, with theories pointing to a Bronze Age proto-Dravidian tribe,^[29] the Austric word "Bonga" (Sun god),^[30] and the Iron Age Vanga Kingdom.^[30] The Indo-Aryan suffix Desh is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha, which means "land" or "country". Hence, the name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal".^[23]^[24]^[25]

History

Main article: History of Bangladesh

Ancient and classical Bengal

Stone age tools found in the Greater Bengal region indicate human habitation for over 20,000 years.^[31] Remnants of Copper Age settlements date back 4,000 years.^[31]

The Paharpur ruins, a UNESCO World Heritage Site dating from the Pala Empire.

Ancient Bengal was settled by Austroasiatics, Tibeto-Burmans, Dravidians and Indo-Aryans in consecutive waves of migration.^[32]^[33] Major urban settlements formed during the Iron Age in the middle of the first millennium BCE,^[34] when the Northern Black Polished Ware culture developed in the Indian subcontinent.^[35] In 1879, Sir Alexander Cunningham identified the archaeological ruins of Mahasthangarh as the ancient city of Pundranagara, the capital of the Pundra Kingdom mentioned in the Rigveda.^[36]^[37]

The Wari-Bateshwar ruins are regarded by archaeologists as the capital of an ancient janapada, one of the earliest city states in the subcontinent.^[38] An indigenous currency of silver punched marked coins dating between 600 BCE and 400 BCE has been found at the site.^[38] Excavations of glass beads suggest the city had trading links with Southeast Asia and the Roman world.^[39]

Greek and Roman records of the ancient Gangaridai Kingdom, which according to legend deterred the invasion of Alexander the Great, are linked to the fort city in Wari-Bateshwar.^[38] The site is also identified with the prosperous trading center of Souanagoura mentioned in Ptolemy's world map.^[39] Roman geographers noted the existence of a large and important seaport in southeastern Bengal, corresponding to the modern-day Chittagong region.^[40]

The legendary Vanga Kingdom is mentioned in the Indian epic Mahabharata covering the region of Bangladesh. It was described as a seafaring nation of South Asia. According to Sinhalese chronicles, the Bengali Prince Vijaya led a maritime expedition to Sri Lanka, conquering the island and establishing its first recorded kingdom.^[41] The Bengali people also embarked on overseas colonization in Southeast Asia, including in modern-day Malaysia and Indonesia.^[42]

Bengal was ruled by the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. With their bastions in the Bengal and Bihar regions (collectively known as Magadha), the Mauryans built the first geographically extensive Iron Age empire in Ancient India. They promoted Jainism and Buddhism. The empire reached its peak under emperor Ashoka. They were eventually succeeded by the Gupta Empire in the 3rd century. According to historian H. C. Roychowdhury, the Gupta dynasty originated in the Varendra region in Bangladesh, corresponding to the modern-day Rajshahi and Rangpur divisions.^[43] The Gupta era saw the invention of chess, the concept of zero, the theory of Earth orbiting the Sun, the study of solar and lunar eclipses and the flourishing of Sanskrit literature and drama.^[44]^[45]

In classical antiquity, Bengal was divided between various kingdoms. The Pala Empire stood out as the largest Bengali state established in ancient history, with an empire covering most of the north Indian subcontinent at its height in the 9th century. The Palas were devout Mahayana Buddhists. They strongly patronized art, architecture and education, giving rise to the Pala School of Painting and Sculptural Art,^[46] the Somapura Mahavihara and the universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila. The proto-Bengali language emerged under Pala rule. In the 11th-century, the resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty gained power. The Senas were staunch promoters of Brahmanical Hinduism and laid the foundation of Bengali Hinduism. They patronized their own school of Hindu art taking inspiration from their predecessors.^[47] The Senas consolidated the caste system in Bengal.^[48]

Bengal was also a junction of the Southwestern Silk Road.^[12]

Islamic Bengal

Minaret of the 15th century Sixty Dome Mosque, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Emperor Akbar rejoicing after a Mughal naval victory in Bengal (1576). Akbar developed the modern Bengali calendar.^[49]

The Bengal Sultanate

Mughal era illustration of a Bengali Sufi Pir.

Islam arrived on the shores of Bengal in the late first millennium, brought largely by missionaries, Sufis and merchants from Middle East. Some experts have suggested that early Muslims, including Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas (an uncle of the Prophet Muhammad), used Bengal as a transit point to travel to China on the Southern Silk Road.^[50] The excavation of Abbasid Caliphate coins in Bangladesh indicate a strong trade network during the House of Wisdom Era in Baghdad, when Arab scientists absorbed pre-Islamic Indian and Greek discoveries.^[51] This gave rise to the Indo Arabic numerals. Writing in 1154, Al-Idrisi noted a busy shipping route between Chittagong and Basra.^[52]

Subsequent Muslim conquest absorbed the culture and achievements of pre-Islamic Bengali civilization in the new Islamic polity.^[53] Muslims adopted indigenous customs and traditions, including in dress, food and way of life. This included the wearing of the sari, bindu and bangles by Muslim women; and art forms in music, dance and theater.^[53] Muslim rule reinforced the process of conversion through the construction of mosques, madrasas and Sufi Khanqahs.^[54]

The Islamic conquest of Bengal began when Bakhtiar Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate conquered northern and western Bengal in 1204.^[55] The Delhi Sultanate gradually annexed the whole of Bengal over the next century. By the 14th century, an independent Bengal Sultanate was established.^[56] The rulers of the Turkic^[57]^[58]^[59] Ilyas Shahi dynasty built the largest mosque in South Asia, and cultivated strong diplomatic and commercial ties with Ming China.^[60]^[61]

Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah was the first Bengali convert on the throne.^[56] The Bengal Sultanate was noted for its cultural pluralism. Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists jointly formed its civil-military services. The Hussain Shahi sultans promoted the development of Bengali literature.^[62] It brought Arakan under its suzerainty for 100 years.^[63]

The sultanate was visited by numerous world explorers, including Niccolò de' Conti of Venice, Ibn Battuta of Morocco and Admiral Zheng He of China. However, by the 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate began to disintegrate. The Sur Empire overran Bengal in 1532 and built the Grand Trunk Road. Hindu Rajas and the Baro-Bhuyan zamindars gained control of large parts of the region, especially in the fertile Bhati zone. Isa Khan was the Rajput leader of the Baro-Bhuyans based in Sonargaon.^[64]

In the late 16th-century, the Mughal Empire led by Akbar the Great began conquering the Bengal delta after the Battle of Tukaroi,^[65] where he defeated the Bengal Sultanate's last rulers, the Karrani dynasty. Dhaka was established as the Mughal provincial capital in 1608. The Mughals faced stiff resistance from the Baro-Bhuyans, Afghan warlords and zamindars, but were ultimately successful in conquering the whole of Bengal by 1666, when the Portuguese and Arakanese were expelled from Chittagong. Mughal rule ushered economic prosperity, agrarian reform and flourishing external trade, particularly in muslin and silk textiles. Mughal Viceroys promoted agricultural expansion and turned Bengal into the rice basket of the Indian subcontinent. The Sufis gained increasing prominence. The Baul movement, inspired by Sufism, also emerged under Mughal rule. The Bengali ethnic identity further crystallized during this period, and the region's inhabitants were given sufficient autonomy to cultivate their own customs and literature. The entire region was brought under a stable-long lasting administration.^[60]

By the 18th century, Bengal was the wealthiest part of the subcontinent.^[66] It generated 50% of Mughal GDP.^[67] Its towns and cities were filled with Eurasian traders. The Nawabs of Bengal established an independent principality in 1717, with their headquarters in Murshidabad. The Nawabs granted increasing concessions to European trading powers. Matters reached a climax in 1757, when Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah captured the British base at Fort William, in an effort to stem the rising influence of the East India Company. Siraj-ud-Daulah was betrayed by his general Mir Jafar, who helped Robert Clive defeat the last independent Nawab at the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757.^[68]^[69]

British Bengal

The first steam engine in Eastern Bengal. Railways in Bangladesh date back to 1862, being one of the earliest rail networks in the world

Curzon Hall, named after Lord Curzon, who is credited for the creation of Eastern Bengal and Assam

The defeat of the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey ushered the rule of the British East India Company in 1757. The British displaced the ruling Muslim class of Bengal.^[70] The Bengal Presidency was established in 1765, with Calcutta as its capital. The Permanent Settlement created an oppressive feudal system. A number of deadly famines struck the region.

The Mutiny of 1857 was initiated in the Presidency of Bengal, with major revolts by the Bengal Army in Dacca, Calcutta and Chittagong.^[71]^[72] Eastern Bengal witnessed numerous native rebellions, including the Faraizi Movement by Haji Shariatullah, the activities of Titumir, the Chittagong armoury raid and revolutionary formations such as the Anushilan Samiti. The Bengal Renaissance flowered as a result of educational and cultural institutions being established across the region, especially in East Bengal and the imperial colonial capital Calcutta. The Presidency of Bengal became the cradle of modern South Asian political and artistic expression. It included the notable contributions of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Mir Mosharraf Hossain, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Jagadish Chandra Bose, Khan Bahadur Ahsanullah, Rabindranath Tagore, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Kazi Nazrul Islam and Begum Rokeya. Gopal Krishna Gokhle, the mentor of Mahatma Gandhi, remarked that "what Bengal thinks today, India thinks tomorrow".^[73]

The leading Bengali statesmen during the early 20th century: A. K. Fazlul Huq, Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin and H. S. Suhrawardy.

During British rule, East Bengal developed a plantation economy centered on the jute trade and tea production. Its share in world jute supply peaked in the early 20th century, at over 80%.^[74] The Eastern Bengal Railway and the Assam Bengal Railway served as important trade routes, connecting the Port of Chittagong with a large hinterland.

As a result of growing demands for educational development in East Bengal, the British partitioned Bengal in 1905 and created the administrative division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Based in Dacca, with Shillong as the summer capital and Chittagong as the chief port, the new province covered much of the northeastern subcontinent. The All India Muslim League was formed in Dacca in 1906 and emerged as the standard bearer of Muslims in British India. The partition of Bengal outraged nationalist Hindus and anti-British Muslims, leading to the Swadeshi movement by the Indian National Congress. The partition was annulled in 1911 after a long civil disobedience campaign by the Congress. The Indian Independence Movement enjoyed strong momentum in the Bengal region, including the constitutional struggle for the rights of Muslim minorities.

The Freedom of Intellect Movement thrived in the University of Dacca. By the 1930s, the Krishak Praja Party led by A. K. Fazlul Huq and the Swaraj Party led by C. R. Das came to represent the new Bengali middle class. Huq became the Prime Minister of Bengal in 1937. With the breakdown of Hindu-Muslim unity in the British Raj, Huq allied with the Muslim League to present the Lahore Resolution in 1940, which envisioned independent states in the eastern and northwestern subcontinent.

During the Second World War, the Japanese Air Force conducted air raids in Chittagong in 1942, displacing several thousand people.^[75]^[76] The war-induced Bengal famine of 1943 claimed the lives of over a million people. Allied forces were stationed in bases across East Bengal in support of the Burma Campaign. Axis-allied Subhash Chandra Bose also had a significant following in East Bengal.

The Muslim League formed a parliamentary government in Bengal in 1943, with Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin and later H. S. Suhrawardy as its premiers. At the Indian provincial elections, 1946, the decisive victory of the Bengal Muslim League set the course for the Partition of British India and the creation of the Dominion of Pakistan on 14 August 1947. Assam was partitioned in order to allow Bengali-speaking Sylhet to join East Bengal. There was also an unsuccessful attempt to form a United Bengal. The Radcliffe Line divided Bengal on religious grounds, ceding Hindu-majority districts to the Indian dominion, and making Muslim-majority districts the eastern wing of Pakistan.

After British Independence

The Dominion of Pakistan in 1947, with East Bengal as its eastern wing.

East Bengal was the most populous province in the new Pakistani federation led by Governor General Muhammad Ali Jinnah in 1947, with Dacca as the provincial capital.^[77] While the state of Pakistan was created as a homeland for Muslims of the former British Raj, East Bengal was also Pakistan's most cosmopolitan province, being home to peoples of different faiths, cultures and ethnic groups. In 1950, land reform was accomplished in East Bengal with the abolishment of the permanent settlement and the feudal zamindari system.^[78]

The successful Bengali Language Movement in 1952 was the first sign of friction with West Pakistan.^[79] The One Unit scheme renamed the province as East Pakistan in 1955. The Awami League emerged as the political voice of the Bengali-speaking population,^[80] with its leader H. S. Suhrawardy becoming Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1956. He was ousted after only a year in office due to tensions with West Pakistan's establishment and bureaucracy.^[81]

The 1956 Constitution ended dominion status with Queen Elizabeth II as the last monarch of the country. Dissatisfaction with the central government increased over economic and cultural issues. The provincial government of A. K. Fazlul Huq was dismissed on charges of inciting secession.^[82] In 1957, the radical left-wing populist leader Maulana Bhashani warned that the eastern wing would bid farewell to Pakistan.^[83]

Students during the Bengali Language Movement.

The first Pakistani military coup ushered the dictatorship of Ayub Khan. In 1962, Dacca was designated as the legislative capital of Pakistan in an appeasement of growing Bengali political nationalism.^[84] Khan's government also constructed the Kaptai Dam which controversially displaced the Chakma population from their indigenous homeland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.^[85] During the 1965 presidential election, Fatima Jinnah failed to defeat Field Marshal Ayub Khan despite strong support in East Pakistan.^[86]

According to senior international bureaucrats in the World Bank, Pakistan applied extensive economic discrimination against the eastern wing, including higher government spending on West Pakistan, financial transfers from East to West and the use of the East's foreign exchange surpluses to finance the West's imports.^[87] This was despite the fact that East Pakistan generated 70%^[88] of Pakistan's export earnings with jute and tea.^[87] East Pakistani intellectuals crafted the Six Points which called for greater regional autonomy, free trade and economic independence. The Six Points were championed by Awami League President Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1966, leading to his arrest by the government of President Field Marshal Ayub Khan on charges of treason. Rahman was released during the 1969 popular uprising which ousted President Khan from power.

Ethnic and linguistic discrimination was abound in Pakistan's civil and military services, in which Bengalis were hugely under-represented. In Pakistan's central government, only 15% of offices were occupied by East Pakistanis.^[89] They formed only 10% of the military.^[90] Cultural discrimination also prevailed, causing the eastern wing to forge a distinct political identity.^[91] Pakistan imposed bans on Bengali literature and music in state media, including the works of Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore.^[92] In 1970, a massive cyclone devastated the coast of East Pakistan killing up to half a million people.^[93] The central government was criticized for its poor response.^[94] The military junta governing the country organized the first democratic election in Pakistan's history in December 1970. In 1971, Maulana Bhashani voiced the first calls for the independence of Bangladesh.^[95]

Bangladesh Liberation War

Since 1971

Geography

Main article: Geography of Bangladesh

A map of Bangladesh

Keokradong, one of the highest peaks in Bangladesh

The geography of Bangladesh is divided between three regions. Most of the country is dominated by the fertile Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. The northwest and central parts of the country are formed by the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus. The northeast and southeast are home to evergreen hill ranges. The Ganges delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda), Brahmaputra (Jamuna or Jomuna), and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna, finally flowing into the Bay of Bengal. The alluvial soil deposited by the rivers when they overflow their banks has created some of the most fertile plains in the world. Bangladesh has 57 trans-boundary rivers, making water issues politically complicated to resolve – in most cases as the lower riparian state to India.^[137]

Bangladesh is predominately rich fertile flat land. Most parts of Bangladesh are less than 12 m (39.4 ft) above sea level, and it is estimated that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 m (3.28 ft).^[138] 17% of the country is covered by forests and 12% is covered by hill systems. The country's haor wetlands are of significant importance to global environmental science.

In southeastern Bangladesh, experiments have been done since the 1960s to 'build with nature'. Construction of cross dams has induced a natural accretion of silt, creating new land. With Dutch funding, the Bangladeshi government began promoting the development of this new land in the late 1970s. The effort has become a multi-agency endeavor, building roads, culverts, embankments, cyclone shelters, toilets and ponds, as well as distributing land to settlers. By fall 2010, the program will have allotted some 27,000 acres (10,927 ha) to 21,000 families.^[139] With an elevation of 1,064 m (3,491 ft), the highest peak of Bangladesh is Saka Haphong, on the border with Myanmar.

Landscapes of Bangladesh
The Himalayas seen from the Bangladesh Plain
A bird among water lilies in a haor area
Cox's Bazar Beach
St. Martin's Island
A rural riverside area
Madhabkunda waterfall

Climate

Main article: Climate of Bangladesh

Climate change is causing increasing river erosion in Bangladesh, threatening an estimated 20 million people

Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh's climate is tropical with a mild winter from October to March, and a hot, humid summer from March to June. The country has never recorded an air temperature below 0 °C, with a record low of 1.1 °C in the north west city of Dinajpur on 3 February 1905.^[140] A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country's rainfall. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores occur almost every year,^[141] combined with the effects of deforestation, soil degradation and erosion. The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating. A cyclone that struck Bangladesh in 1991 killed some 140,000 people.^[142]

Bangladesh map of Köppen climate classification

In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern world history. As the Brahmaputra, the Ganges and Meghna spilt over and swallowed 300,000 houses, 9,700 km (6,000 mi) of road and 2,700 km (1,700 mi) of embankment, 1,000 people were killed and 30 million more were made homeless, with 135,000 cattle killed, 50 km² (19 sq mi) of land destroyed and 11,000 km (6,800 mi) of roads damaged or destroyed. Two-thirds of the country was underwater. There were several reasons for the severity of the flooding. Firstly, there were unusually high monsoon rains. Secondly, the Himalayas shed off an equally unusually high amount of melt water that year. Thirdly, trees that usually would have intercepted rain water had been cut down for firewood or to make space for animals.^[143]

Bangladesh is now widely recognised to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change. Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health and shelter.^[144] It is believed that in the coming decades the rising sea level alone will create more than 20 million^[145] climate refugees.^[146] Bangladeshi water is contaminated with arsenic frequently because of the high arsenic contents in the soil. Up to 77 million people are exposed to toxic arsenic from drinking water.^[147]^[148]

Bangladesh is prone to floods, tornados and cyclones.^[149]^[150] Also, there is evidence that earthquakes pose a threat to the country. Evidence shows that tectonics have caused rivers to shift course suddenly and dramatically. It has been shown that rainy-season flooding in Bangladesh, on the world's largest river delta, can push the underlying crust down by as much as 6 centimetres, and possibly perturb faults.^[151]

Biodiversity

Main articles: Wildlife of Bangladesh and Fauna of Bangladesh

Axis deer in the Sunderbans

Bangladesh ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 3 May 1994.^[152] As of 2014, the country is set to revise its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.^[152]

Bangladesh is located in the Indomalaya ecozone. Its ecology includes a long sea coastline, numerous rivers and tributaries, lakes, wetlands, evergreen forests, semi evergreen forests, hill forests, moist deciduous forests, freshwater swamp forests and flat land with tall grass. The Bangladesh Plain is famous for its fertile alluvial soil which supports extensive cultivation. The country is dominated by lush vegetation, with villages often buried in groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut and date palm.^[153] There are 6000 species of plant life, including 5000 flowering plants.^[154] Water bodies and wetland systems provide a habitat for many aquatic plants. Water lilies and lotuses grow vividly during the monsoon. The country has 50 wildlife sanctuaries.

A grey headed fish eagle in Dhaka

Bangladesh is home to much of the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest. It covers an area of 6,000 km² in the southwest littoral region. It is divided into three protected sanctuaries- the South, East and West zones. The forest is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northeastern Sylhet region is home to haor wetlands, which is a unique ecosystem. It also includes tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, a freshwater swamp forest and mixed deciduous forests. The southeastern Chittagong region covers evergreen and semi evergreen hilly jungles. Central Bangladesh includes the plainland Sal forest running along the districts of Gazipur, Tangail and Mymensingh. St. Martin's Island is the only coral reef in the country.

The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh.

Bangladesh has an abundance of wildlife in its forests, marshes, woodlands and hills.^[153] The vast majority of animals dwell within a habitat of 150,000 km².^[155] The Bengal tiger, clouded leopard, saltwater crocodile, black panther and fishing cat are among the chief predators in the Sundarbans.^[156]^[157] Northern and eastern Bangladesh is home to the Asian elephant, hoolock gibbon, Asian black bear and oriental pied hornbill.^[158]

The Chital deer are widely seen in southwestern woodlands. Other animals include the black giant squirrel, capped langur, Bengal fox, sambar deer, jungle cat, king cobra, wild boar, mongooses, pangolins, pythons and water monitors. Bangladesh has one of the largest population of Irrawaddy dolphins and Ganges dolphins. A 2009 census found 6,000 Irrawaddy dolphins inhabiting the littoral rivers of Bangladesh.^[159] The country has numerous species of amphibians (53), reptiles (139), marine reptiles (19) and marine mammals (5). It has 628 species of birds.^[160]

Several animals became extinct in Bangladesh during the last century, including the one horned and two horned rhinoceros and common peafowl. The human population is concentrated in urban areas, hence limiting deforestation to a certain extent. Rapid urban growth has threatened natural habitats. Though many areas are protected under law, a large portion of Bangladeshi wildlife is threatened by this growth. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995. The government has designated several regions as Ecologically Critical Areas, including wetlands, forests and rivers. The Sundarbans Tiger Project and the Bangladesh Bear Project are among the key initiatives to strengthen conservation.^[158]

Politics

Main article: Politics of Bangladesh

Government

Main article: Government of Bangladesh

The National Parliament House in Dhaka was designed by American architect Louis Kahn.

The politics of Bangladesh takes place in the framework of a multiparty parliamentary representative democracy, modeled on the Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. Traditionally, Bangladesh has been a two party system since democracy was restored in 1990. However, concerns over the fairness of elections and annulment of the caretaker government system led to a boycott of the national election in 2014 by major opposition parties. Critics have accused the government of trying to turn Bangladesh into a dominant party state under the ruling Awami League.^[161]

The Bangladeshi state has a unitary structure, with the central government in Dhaka.

Executive: The Prime Minister is the head of government and is appointed by the President with the confidence of the majority in parliament. The Prime Minister heads the Cabinet of Bangladesh which holds Executive power. The President is the head of state with key ceremonial duties. The President is elected by the parliament for a five-year term. Sheikh Hasina has been the Prime Minister of Bangladesh since 2009. Abdul Hamid is the current President of Bangladesh.
Legislative: There are 350 MPs in the Jatiyo Sangshad.^[162] It is headed by the Speaker of Parliament, who is second in line to the presidency. The Prime Minister is traditionally the Leader of the House and the single largest party. The Leader of the Opposition heads the main opposition in the house. During elections, 300 lawmakers are elected on a first-past-the-post basis.^[163] The Speaker allocates an additional 50 reserved seats for women candidates. The Awami League currently holds control of the house with 273 seats. The Jatiya Party is the chief opposition with 42 seats. The current Speaker of parliament is Shirin Sharmin Chaudhury.

Judicial: The legal system of Bangladesh is primarily in accordance with English Common Law.^[164] The higher judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, which includes an Appellate Division and the Bangladesh High Court. The current Chief Justice is Surendra Kumar Sinha. The constitution has undergone fifteen amendments since 1972.

Foreign affairs

Main article: Foreign relations of Bangladesh

The first summit of SAARC held at the Parliament in Dhaka in 1985. Bangladesh played a pioneering role in the formation of the South Asian community

Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and Russian President Vladimir Putin at the Moscow Kremlin in 2013. Hasina's government has increased military, energy and economic links with Russia, including the signing of a civilian nuclear deal.

Bangladesh's foreign policy follows a principle of friendship to all and malice to none, which was first articulated by Bengali statesman H. S. Suhrawardy in 1957.^[165]^[166] Today, countries considered as Bangladesh's most important partners include India,^[167] China,^[168] Japan,^[169] Russia,^[170] the United States^[171] and the United Kingdom.^[172]

During the Cold War, Bangladesh cultivated good relations with both the United States and the Soviet Union, but it remained nonaligned with either superpower.^[173] Bangladesh asserted itself in regards to many international issues, including those affecting decolonized and developing countries.^[173] Bangladesh places a heavy reliance on multilateral diplomacy, especially in the United Nations. Since independence, it was twice elected to the UN Security Council in 1978 and 2000. Humayun Rashid Choudhury served as President of the United Nations General Assembly during its 41st session.^[174]

During the Gulf War in 1991, Bangladesh contributed 2,300 troops to the US-led multinational coalition for the liberation of Kuwait. It has since become the world's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping operations, providing 113,000 personnel to 54 UN missions in the Middle East, the Balkans, Africa and the Caribbean, as of 2014.^[175] Bangladeshi aid agencies work in many developing countries worldwide. An example are the operations of BRAC in Afghanistan, which benefit 12 million people in that country.^[176]

Key to Bangladesh's self-assertiveness is its desire to project soft power on matters of international stability and security. It also relies on its Islamic heritage, being an OIC member and the world's third largest Muslim-majority country, and enjoys fraternal relations with many nations in the Muslim world. It is a founding member of the Developing 8, along with Turkey, Malaysia, Egypt, Iran, Nigeria, Pakistan and Indonesia.^[173]

A Bangladesh Army UN peacekeeping patrol in Darfur, Sudan. Bangladesh is the world's largest contributor of UN peacekeeping forces.^[22]

As part of efforts to stimulate regional development plans, Bangladesh has been instrumental in organizing regional economic cooperation in the South Asian subcontinent.^[173] The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was founded in Dhaka in 1985. Since then, three Bangladeshis have served as its Secretary-General. The Bangladeshi capital also hosts the headquarters of the Bay of Bengal Initiative (BIMSTEC). Located on the western doorstep of Southeast Asia, Bangladesh has prioritized on building economic, political and strategic relations with member states of ASEAN. Other regional groupings where it s a key member include the BCIM, BBIN, the ASEAN Regional Forum and the Indian Ocean Rim Association.

Bangladesh's most complex bilateral relationship is with neighboring India. Relations are bounded by shared history, cultural affinities and Indian support for the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The two nations were initially very strong allies, but differences soon emerged over water sharing, border security and trade barriers. Bangladesh distanced itself from the Indo-Soviet Cold War axis in South Asia, and pursued stronger relations with Western countries.^[177] Any hint of Indian intimidation or encroachment on territorial rights elicited a strong nationalistic response from all levels of Bangladeshi society.^[173] Since 2009, as a sign of improving relations, the two countries have resolved long pending border disputes, and have forged joint initiatives in counter-terrorism, energy security and developing transport links. Bangladesh and India are today the largest trading partners in South Asia.^[178]

The global Diplomatic missions of Bangladesh.

Japan and Bangladesh have strong relations with common strategic and political goals.^[165] Japan has been Bangladesh's largest development partner since independence, providing US$11 billion in assistance since 1972. Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced a further US$6 billion aid package for the country in 2014.^[179]

Bangladesh enjoys very warm relations with China and Russia. Economic cooperation between Dhaka and the two major powers have increased. China is both a major trade partner and defense supplier to Bangladesh. A civilian nuclear agreement was signed with Russia in 2011. The Bangladesh Armed Forces operate Russian and Chinese warships, fighter jets, tanks and missiles.

Bangladesh is an important strategic ally of the United States in South Asia.^[180] The two countries enjoy robust strategic cooperation in defense, maritime security, and counter-terrorism. The U.S. is also Bangladesh's largest trade partner and foreign investor. According to a Pew research poll in 2014, 76% of Bangladeshis express a favorable view of the U.S., making it one of the most pro-American Muslim majority countries in the world.^[181] Bangladesh is an important member of the Commonwealth of Nations. It has growing economic ties with Latin American countries, particularly Brazil and Mexico.

Military

Main article: Bangladesh Armed Forces

A Bangladesh Navy frigate in the Bay of Bengal

As of 2012, the current strength of the army is around 300,000 including reservists,^[182] the air force 22,000, and navy 24,000.^[183] In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has been called on to provide support to civil authorities for disaster relief and internal security during periods of political unrest. Bangladesh has consistently been the world's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping forces for many years. In February 2015, Bangladesh had major deployments in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Darfur, Côte d'Ivoire, Haiti, South Sudan, Lebanon, Cyprus and the Golan Heights.^[184]

Human rights and corruption

Main articles: Human rights in Bangladesh and Corruption in Bangladesh

The Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) has been described as a "death squad". Bangladeshi law enforcement agencies have been accused of regular widespread human rights abuses.

Bangladesh is ranked by Freedom House as "Partly Free" in its Freedom in the World report.^[185] Press freedom in Bangladesh as ranked as "Not Free".^[186] The Economist Intelligence Unit classifies the country as a hybrid regime, which is the third best rank out of four in its Democracy Index.^[187] Bangladesh ranked as the 3rd most peaceful country in South Asia in the Global Peace Index in 2015.^[188] In recent years, the once vibrant civil society and media in Bangladesh have come under attack from both the ruling Awami League government and far-right Islamic extremists.^[189]

According to Mizanur Rahman, the chairman of the National Human Rights Commission, 70% of the allegations of human rights violations they receive are against the law-enforcement agencies.^[190] Targets have included Nobel Peace Prize winner Muhammad Yunus and the Grameen Bank, secularist bloggers, independent and pro-opposition newspapers and television networks. The United Nations has said that it was deeply concerned by the government's "measures that restrict freedom of expression and democratic space".^[189]

Bangladeshi security forces, particularly the Rapid Action Battalion (RAB), have faced strong international condemnation for human rights abuses, including enforced disappearances, torture and extrajudicial killings. Over 1,000 people have been killed in extrajudicial killings by RAB since its inception under the last BNP government.^[191] The agency has been singled out by Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International as a "death squad".^[192]^[193] They have called for the force to be disbanded.^[192]^[193] The British and American governments have been widely criticized for funding and engaging the force in counter-terrorism operations.^[194]

In the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the government is yet to fully implement the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord.^[195] The Hill Tracts region remains heavily militarized despite the signing of the peace treaty with indigenous people led by the United People's Party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts.^[196]

Secularism in Bangladesh is legally enshrined in the constitution. Religious parties are banned from contesting elections, but the government is accused of courting religious extremist groups for votes. Ambiguities over Islam being the state religion have been criticized by the United Nations.^[197] Despite relative inter-religious and communal harmony, minorities in Bangladesh have faced persecution on occasions. The Hindu and Buddhist communities have faced religious violence from Islamic groups, notably the Jamaat-e-Islami and its student wing Shibir. The highest vote share achieved by Islamic far right candidates during Bangladeshi elections was 12% in 2001; the lowest was 4% in 2008.^[198]

According to Transparency International, Bangladesh ranked 14th in the list of countries with the most perceived corruption in 2014.^[199] The country's Anti Corruption Commission was highly active under a state of emergency in 2007 and 2008, when it indicted many leading politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen for graft. After assuming power in 2009, the Awami League government greatly reduced the commission's independent powers for investigation and prosecution.^[200]

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative geography of Bangladesh

A clickable map of Bangladesh exhibiting its divisions.

Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions,^[201]^[202]^[203] each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Sylhet and Rangpur.

Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions, with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, which are further divided into mahallas.

There are no elected officials at the divisional or district levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held for each union (or ward), electing a chairperson and a number of members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates.^[204]

Administrative Divisions of Bangladesh
Division	Capital	Established	Area (km²)^[205]	Population^[205]	Density^[205]
Barisal	Barisal	1 January 1993	13,297	8,325,666	626
Chittagong	Chittagong	1829	33,771	28,423,019	841
Dhaka	Dhaka	1829	20,593	36,054,418	1,751
Khulna	Khulna	1 October 1960	22,272	15,687,759	704
Mymensingh	Mymensingh	14 September 2015	10,584	11,370,000	1,074
Rajshahi	Rajshahi	1829	18,197	18,484,858	1,015
Rangpur	Rangpur	25 January 2010	16,317	15,787,758	960
Sylhet	Sylhet	1 August 1995	12,596	9,910,219	780

Economy

Main article: Economy of Bangladesh

The Port of Chittagong is Bangladesh's chief international seaport and the busiest on the Bay of Bengal. It handled US$60 billion in annual trade in 2011

Bangladesh is a developing country, with a market-based mixed economy and is listed as one of the Next Eleven emerging markets. The per capita income of Bangladesh was US$1,190 in 2014, with a GDP of US$209 billion.^[206] In South Asia, Bangladesh has the third-largest economy after those of India and Pakistan, and has the second highest foreign exchange reserves after India. The Bangladeshi diaspora contributed US$15.31 billion in remittances in 2015.^[207]

In the early five years of independence, Bangladesh adopted socialist policies which proved to be a critical blunder by the Awami League.^[208] The subsequent military regime and BNP and Jatiya Party governments restored free markets and promoted the Bangladeshi private sector. In 1991, finance minister Saifur Rahman launched a range of liberal reforms. The Bangladeshi private sector has since rapidly expanded, with numerous conglomerates now driving the economy. Major industries include textiles, pharmaceuticals, shipbuilding, steel, electronics, energy, construction materials, chemicals, ceramics, food processing, and leather goods. Export-oriented industrialization has increased in recent years, with the country's exports amounting to US$30 billion in FY2014-15.^[209] The predominant export earnings of Bangladesh come from its garments sector. The country also has a vibrant social enterprise sector, including the Nobel Peace Prize-winning microfinance institution Grameen Bank and the world's largest non-governmental development agency BRAC.

The insufficient power supply is a significant obstacle to growth. According to the World Bank, poor governance, corruption and weak public institutions are major challenges for Bangladesh's development.^[210] In April 2010, Standard & Poor's awarded Bangladesh a BB- long term credit rating, which is below India and well above Pakistan and Sri Lanka.^[211]

Jute is one of the main agricultural commodities of Bangladesh

A Boeing 777 of the national flag carrier airline Biman

Dhaka is the financial centre of Bangladesh

Primary

Bangladesh is notable for its fertile land, including the Ganges delta, the Sylhet Division and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Agriculture is the single largest producing sector of the economy since it comprises about 18.6% (data released on November, 2010) of the country's GDP and employs around 45% of the total labor force.^[212] The performance of this sector has an overwhelming impact on major macroeconomic objectives like employment generation, poverty alleviation, human resources development and food security. A plurality of Bangladeshis earn their living from agriculture. The country ranks among the top producers of rice (4th), fish (5th), jute (2nd), tea (10th) and tropical fruits (5th).^[213]^[214]

Bangladesh is the 7th largest natural gas producer in Asia, ahead of its neighbor Myanmar. Gas supplies generate 56% of the country's electricity. Major gas fields are located in northeastern (particularly Sylhet) and southern (including Barisal and Chittagong) regions. Petrobangla is the national energy company. The American multinational Chevron produces 50% of Bangladesh's natural gas.^[215] According to geologists, the Bay of Bengal holds large untapped gas reserves in Bangladesh' exclusive economic zone.^[216] The country also has substantial reserves of coal, with several coal mines operating in northwestern Bangladesh.

Jute exports continue to be significant, however the global jute trade has reduced considerably since it peaked during World War II. Bangladesh has one of the oldest tea industries in the world. It is also major exporter of fish and seafood.

Secondary

A Danish ferry constructed in a Bangladeshi shipyard

The Bangladesh textile industry is the largest manufacturing sector, accounting for US$25 billion in exports in 2014.^[217] Leather goods manufacturing, particularly in footwear, is the second largest export oriented industrial sector. The pharmaceutical industry in Bangladesh meets 97% of domestic demand and exports to 52 countries.^[218]^[219] The shipbuilding industry in Bangladesh has seen rapid growth with exports to Europe.^[220]

The steel industry in Bangladesh is concentrated in the port city of Chittagong. The ceramics industry in Bangladesh is a prominent player in the international ceramics trade. In 2005, Bangladesh was the world's 20th largest cement producer. The country's cement industry depends on limestone imports from North East India. Food processing is a major sector of the local economy, with prominent brands like PRAN that are increasingly gaining an international market. The electronics industry in Bangladesh is witnessing rapid growth, with the Walton Group being its dominant player.^[221] Bangladesh also has its own defense industry, including the establishments such as Bangladesh Ordnance Factories and the Khulna Shipyard.

Tertiary

The service sector accounts for 51% of GDP. Bangladesh ranks with Pakistan in having the second largest banking sector in South Asia.^[222] The Dhaka Stock Exchange and the Chittagong Stock Exchange are the twin financial markets of the country. The telecoms industry in Bangladesh is one of the fastest growing markets in the world, with 114 million cellphone subscribers in December 2013.^[223] The main telecom companies are Grameenphone, Banglalink, Robi, Airtel and BTTB. Tourism in Bangladesh is a developing sector, with the beach resort town of Cox's Bazar being the center of the industry. The Sylhet region, home to Bangladesh's tea country, also receives a large number of visitors. Bangladesh has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and five tentative listed sites.

Microfinance was pioneered in Bangladesh by Muhammad Yunus and has been replicated in many countries. There are more than 35 million microcredit borrowers.^[224]

Transport

The Jamuna Multi-purpose Bridge is the longest bridge in Bangladesh. Bridges are critical arteries over the country's 700 rivers

Transport is a major sector in the Bangladesh economy. The aviation industry has seen rapid growth and includes the national flag carrier Biman and other privately owned airlines. The country has a 2,706 km rail network operated by the Bangladesh Railway. It has one of the largest inland waterway networks in the world,^[225] with 8,046 km of navigable waterways. The southeastern Port of Chittagong is its busiest seaport, handling over US$60 billion in annual trade.^[226] More than 80% of the country's export-import trade passes through Chittagong.

The second busiest seaport is Mongla in southwestern Bangladesh.

Energy

Electricity generation in Bangladesh had an installed capacity of 10,289 MW in January 2014.^[227] Commercial energy consumption is mostly natural gas (around 56%), followed by oil, hydropower and coal.

Bangladesh has planned to import hydropower from Bhutan and Nepal.^[228]

Nuclear energy in Bangladesh is being developed with Russia in the landmark Ruppur Nuclear Power Plant project.^[229]

In renewable energy, Bangladesh has the fifth-largest number of green jobs in the world. Solar panels are increasingly used to power both urban and off grid rural areas.^[230]

Water

The share of the population with access to an improved water source was estimated at 98% in 2004,^[231] a very high level for a low-income country. This has been achieved to a large extent through the construction of handpumps with the support of external donors. However, in 1993 it was discovered that groundwater, the source of drinking water for 97% of the rural population and a significant share of the urban population, is in many cases naturally contaminated with arsenic.

Another challenge is the low level of cost recovery due to low tariffs and poor economic efficiency, especially in urban areas where revenues from water sales do not even cover operating costs. Concerning sanitation, estimated 56% of the population have had access to adequate sanitation facilities in 2010.^[232] A new approach to improve sanitation coverage in rural areas, the community-led total sanitation concept that has been first introduced in Bangladesh, is credited for having contributed significantly to the increase in sanitation coverage since 2000.^[233]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Bangladesh

SPARRSO, Bangladesh's space agency, was founded in 1983 with assistance from the United States.^[234] Bangladesh plans to launch the Bangabandhu-1 communications satellite in 2018.^[235] The Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission operates a TRIGA research reactor at its atmoic energy facility in Savar.^[236] The Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research was founded in 1973, and traces to its roots to the East Pakistan Regional Laboratories established in Dhaka (1955), Rajshahi (1965) and Chittagong (1967).

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Bangladesh

Bangladeshi women during the Bengali Spring Festival.

Historical populations in millions
Year	Pop.	±% p.a.
1971	67.8	—
1980	80.6	+1.94%
1990	105.3	+2.71%
2000	129.6	+2.10%
2010	148.7	+1.38%
2012	161.1	+4.09%
Source: OECD/World Bank^[237]

Estimates of the Bangladeshi population vary but most recent data suggest 162 to 168 million people (2015).^[3] However, the 2011 census estimated 142.3 million,^[238] much less than recent (2007–2010) estimates of Bangladesh's population ranging from 150 to 170 million. Bangladesh is thus the 8th most populous nation in the world. In 1951, the population was only 44 million.^[239] It is also the most densely populated large country in the world, and it ranks 11th in population density, when very small countries and city-states are included.^[240]

Bangladesh's population growth rate was among the highest in the world in the 1960s and 1970s, when its population grew from 65 to 110 million. With the promotion of birth control in the 1980s, the growth rate began to slow. The fertility rate now stands at 2.55, lower than India (2.58) and Pakistan (3.07) The population is relatively young, with 34% aged 15 or younger and 5% 65 or older. Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 70 years for both males and females in 2012.^[202] Despite the rapid economic growth, about 26% of the country still lives below the international poverty line which means living on less than $1.25 per day.^[241] Bengalis constitute 98% of the population.^[242]

Minorities include indigenous people in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and other parts of northern Bangladesh. The Hill Tracts are home to 11 ethnic tribal groups, notably the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya, Tripuri, Kuki and Bawm. The Sylhet region is home to the Manipuri tribe. The Mymensingh region has a substantial Garo population. The North Bengal region is home to aboriginal Santals. Bangladesh is also home to a significant Ismaili community.^[243]

The southeastern region has received an influx of Rohingya refugees from Burma, particularly during Burmese military crackdowns in 1978 and 1991.^[244] During renewed sectarian unrest in Rakhine State in 2012, Bangladesh closed its borders amid fears of a third major exodus from Burma.^[245] Stranded Pakistanis are a contentious dispute between Bangladesh and Pakistan. In 2008, the Bangladesh High Court granted full citizenship to all second generation Stranded Pakistanis born after 1971.^[246] The Hill Tracts region suffered unrest and an insurgency from 1975 to 1997 due to a movement by indigenous people for autonomy. A peace accord was signed in 1997; however, the region remains heavily militarized.^[247]

Urban centres

Further information: List of cities and towns in Bangladesh

Largest cities or towns in Bangladesh 2011 calculation^[248]
	Rank	Name	Division	Pop.	Rank	Name	Division	Pop.
Dhaka Chittagong	1	Dhaka	Dhaka	7,033,076	11	Rangpur	Rangpur	294,265	Khulna Narayanganj
	2	Chittagong	Chittagong	2,592,439	12	Mymensingh	Mymensingh	258,040
	3	Khulna	Khulna	663,342	13	Gazipur	Dhaka	213,061
	4	Narayanganj	Dhaka	543,090	14	Jessore	Khulna	201,796
	5	Sylhet	Sylhet	479,837	15	Dinajpur	Rangpur	186,727
	6	Tongi	Dhaka	476,350	16	Nawabganj	Rajshahi	180,731
	7	Rajshahi	Rajshahi	449,756	17	Brahmanbaria	Chittagong	172,017
	8	Bogra	Rajshahi	350,397	18	Cox's Bazar	Chittagong	167,477
	9	Barisal	Barisal	328,278	19	Tangail	Dhaka	167,412
	10	Comilla	Chittagong	326,386	20	Chandpur	Chittagong	159,021

Languages

Main article: Languages of Bangladesh

More than 98% of Bangladeshis speak Bengali as their native language, which is also the official language.^[249]^[250] English is also used as a second language among the middle and upper classes and is also widely used in higher education and the legal system.^[251] Historically, laws were written in English and were not translated into Bengali until 1987, when the procedure was reversed. Bangladesh's Constitution and all laws are now in both English and Bengali.^[252] There are also several indigenous minority languages.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Bangladesh

Minaret of the Baitul Mukarram National Mosque in Dhaka

Religions in Bangladesh^[2]
Religion			Percent
Muslim			86.6%
Hindu			12.1%
Buddhist			0.6%
Christian			0.4%
Others			0.3%

Islam is the largest religion in Bangladesh, making up 86.6% of the population. The country is home to most Bengali Muslims, the second largest ethnic group in the Muslim world. The majority of Bangladeshi Muslims are Sunni, followed by the Shia and Ahmadiya. Roughly 4% are non-denominational Muslims.^[253] Bangladesh has the fourth-largest Muslim population in the world and is the third-largest Muslim majority country after Indonesia and Pakistan.^[254]

Courtyard of the Dhakeshwari National Temple

A Buddhist temple in the Chittagong Hill Tracts

Seat of the Archbishop of Dhaka

Hinduism makes up 12.1% of the population, with most being Bengali Hindus. Bangladeshi Hindus are the country's second biggest religious group and the third largest Hindu community in the world after India and Nepal. Buddhism is the third largest religion, at 0.6%. Bangladeshi Buddhists are largely concentrated among ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, particularly the Chakma and Marma peoples; while coastal Chittagong is home to the Bengali Buddhist community. Christianity is the fourth largest religion at 0.4%, with most being Bengali Christians.^[255]

Many people in Bangladesh practice Sufism, which has a long heritage in the region.^[256] The largest gathering of Muslims in the country is the Bishwa Ijtema, held annually by the Tablighi Jamaat. The Ijtema is the second largest Muslim congregation in the world after the Hajj.

The Constitution of Bangladesh declares Islam as the state religion, but bans religion-based politics. It proclaims equal recognition of Hindus, Buddhists, Christians and people of all faiths.^[257] Earlier in 1972, Bangladesh became the first constitutionally secular country in South Asia.^[258] The U. S. State Department describes Bangladesh as a secular pluralistic democracy.^[259]

Education

Main article: Education in Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a low literacy rate, estimated at 66.5% for males and 63.1% for females in 2014.^[202] The educational system in Bangladesh is three-tiered and highly subsidized. The government operates many schools in the primary, secondary, and higher secondary levels. It subsidises parts of the funding for many private schools. In the tertiary education sector, the government funds more than 15 state universities through the University Grants Commission.

The education system is divided into five levels: Primary (from grades 1 to 5), Junior Secondary (from grades 6 to 8), Secondary (from grades 9 to 10), Higher Secondary (from grades 11 to 12) and tertiary.^[260] The five years of lower secondary education concluded with a Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination, but since 2009 it concludes with a Primary Education Closing (PEC) examination. Earlier, students who pass this examination proceed to four years secondary or matriculation training, which culminate in a Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Examination.^[260]

Bangladeshi schoolchildren performing on a stage

Primary Education Closing (PEC) passed examinees proceed to three years Junior Secondary, which culminate in a Junior School Certificate (JSC) Examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two years secondary or matriculation training, which culminate in a Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two years of Higher Secondary or intermediate training, which culminate in a Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) examination.^[260]

Education is mainly offered in Bengali, but English is commonly taught and used. A large number of Muslim families send their children to attend part-time courses or even to pursue full-time religious education, which is imparted in Bengali and Arabic in madrasahs.^[260]

Bangladesh conforms fully to the Education For All (EFA) objectives, the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and international declarations. Article 17 of the Bangladesh Constitution provides that all children between the ages of six and ten years receive a basic education free of charge.

Universities in Bangladesh are mainly categorized into three types: public (government owned and subsidized), private (private sector owned universities) and international (operated and funded by international organizations). Bangladesh has 34 public, 64 private and two international universities. Bangladesh National University has the largest enrollment among them and University of Dhaka (established 1921) is the oldest. Islamic University of Technology, commonly known as IUT, is a subsidiary organ of the Organisation of the Islamic Cooperation (OIC), representing 57 member countries from Asia, Africa, Europe and South America. Asian University for Women in Chittagong is the preeminent liberal arts university for women in South Asia, representing 14 countries from Asia. The faculty members are from many well-known academic institutions of North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, and the Middle East.^[261] BUET, CUET, BUTex, DUET are among the six public engineering universities in the country. There are some science and technology universities including SUST, MIST, PUST, etc.

Bangladeshi universities are accredited by and affiliated with the University Grants Commission (UGC), created according to the Presidential Order (P.O. No 10 of 1973) of the government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh.^[262]

Medical education is provided by 29 government and some other private medical colleges. All medical colleges are affiliated with Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

Recently Bangladesh literacy rate improved as it stands at 71% as of 2015 thanks to modernization of schools and education funds. At present, 16,087 schools and 2,363 colleges were getting Monthly Pay Order (MPO) facilities. 27,558 madrasas, and technical and vocational institutions were enlisted for the facilities. 6036 educational institutions were outside the MPO coverage and that the ruling party enlisted 1,624 private schools for MPO in 2010.^[263]^[264]

Health

Main article: Health in Bangladesh

Health and education levels remain relatively low, although they have improved recently as poverty (26% at 2012^[265]) levels have decreased. In the rural areas, village doctors with little or no formal training constitute 62% of the healthcare providers practicing modern medicine and the formally trained providers are occupying a mere 4% of the total health workforce. A survey conducted by Future Health Systems revealed significant deficiencies in treatment practices of village doctors, with a wide prevalence of harmful and inappropriate drug prescriptions.^[266] There are market incentives for accessing health care through informal providers and it is important to understand these markets in order to facilitate collaboration across actors and institutions in order to provide incentives for better performance.^[267]

A 2007 study of 1000 households in rural Bangladesh found that direct costs (payment to formal and informal health care providers) and indirect costs (loss of earnings associated with workdays lost because of illness) associated with illness were important deterrents to accessing health care from qualified healthcare providers.^[266] A community survey with 6183 individuals in rural Bangladesh found a clear gender difference in treatment-seeking behaviour, with women less likely to seek treatment compared to men.^[268] The use of skilled birth attendants, however, has risen between 2005 and 2007 by women in all wealth quintiles except the highest quintile.^[269] A pilot community empowerment tool, called a health watch, was successfully developed and implemented in south-eastern Bangladesh in order to improve uptake and monitoring of public health services.^[270]

The poor health conditions in Bangladesh is attributed by the lack of healthcare and services provision by the government. The total expenditure on healthcare as a percentage of their GDP was only 3.35% in 2009, according to a World Bank report published in 2010.^[271] The number of hospital beds per 10,000 population is 4.^[272] The General government expenditure on healthcare as a percentage of total government expenditure was only 7.9% as of 2009 and the citizens pay most of their health care bills as the out-of-pocket expenditure as a percentage of private expenditure on health is 96.5%.^[271]

Malnutrition has been a persistent problem for the poverty-stricken country. The World Bank estimates that Bangladesh is ranked 1st in the world of the number of children suffering from malnutrition.^[273]^[274] In Bangladesh, 26% of the population are undernourished^[275] and 46% of the children suffers from moderate to severe underweight problem.^[276] 43% of children under 5 years old are stunted. One in five preschool age children are vitamin A deficient and one in two are anemic.^[277] Child malnutrition in Bangladesh is amongst the highest in the world. Two-thirds of the children, under the age of five, are under-nourished and about 60% of them, who are under six, are stunted.^[278] More than 45 percent of rural families and 76 percent of urban families were below the acceptable caloric intake level.^[279]

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Bangladesh and Culture of Bengal

Literature

Rabindranath Tagore, author of the national anthem, and Kazi Nazrul Islam, the National Poet

Syed Mujtaba Ali is noted for his cosmopolitan Bengali worldview

The Bangla Academy

The oldest evidence of writing in Bangladesh is the Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription, which dates back to the 3rd century BCE.^[280] During the Gupta Empire, Sanskrit literature thrived in the region. Bengali developed from Sanskrit and Magadhi Prakrit in the 11th century. Bengali literature is a millennium old tradition. The Charyapada are the earliest examples of Bengali poetry. Sufi spiritualism inspired many Bengali Muslim writers. During the Bengal Sultanate, medieval Bengali writers were influenced by Arabic and Persian works. Syed Alaol was a noted secular poet and translator. The Chandidas are an example of Bangladeshi folk literature which developed during the Middle Ages. The Bengal Renaissance shaped the emergence of modern Bengali literature, including novels, short stories and science fiction. Rabindranath Tagore was the first non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature and is described as the Bengali Shakespeare.^[281] Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary poet who espoused spiritual rebellion against colonialism and fascism. Begum Rokeya was a pioneer of Bengali writing in English, with her early of work of feminist science fiction. Other renaissance icons included Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay.

The eminent writer Syed Mujtaba Ali is noted for his cosmopolitan Bengali worldview.^[282] Humayun Ahmed was a popular writer of modern Bangladeshi magical realism and science fiction. Shamsur Rahman was the poet laureate of Bangladesh for many years. Jasimuddin was a renowned pastoral poet. Farrukh Ahmed, Sufia Kamal, Kaiser Haq and Nirmalendu Goon are important figures of modern Bangladeshi poetry. Notable writers of Bangladeshi novels include Mir Mosharraf Hossain, Akhteruzzaman Elias, Syed Waliullah, Shahidullah Kaiser, Shawkat Osman, Selina Hossain, Taslima Nasreen, Haripada Datta, Razia Khan, Anisul Hoque, Al Mahmud, Bipradash Barua, Tahmima Anam, Neamat Imam, Monica Ali and Zia Haider Rahman. Many Bangladeshi writers, such as Muhammad Zafar Iqbal, K. Anis Ahmed and Farah Ghuznavi, are acclaimed for their short stories.

The annual Ekushey Book Fair and Dhaka Literature Festival organized by the Bangla Academy are among the largest literary festivals in South Asia.

Women and feminism

Main article: Women in Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a long history of feminist activism dating back to the 19th century. Roquia Sakhawat Hussain and Faizunnessa Chowdhurani played an important role in emancipating Bengali Muslim women from the purdah in undivided Bengal and promoting girls' education. Hussain was also a pioneer of feminist science fiction, with her work Sultana's Dream. Several women were elected to the Bengal Legislative Assembly in the British Raj. The first women's magazine Begum was published in 1948. Women played an important role in Bengali civil society in East Pakistan.

Salma Sobhan was the first female barrister in Bangladesh and Pakistan in 1959. Sufia Kamal was a leading cultural activist and feminist in the Bengali nationalist movement. Women battalions were formed in the Mukti Bahini in the 1971 Liberation War. Jahanara Imam initiated a major movement demanding justice for the 1971 war crimes. In 1991, Khaleda Zia became the second elected woman to lead a Muslim-majority country. She was followed by Sheikh Hasina in 1996. As of 2015, women occupy three major political offices in Bangladesh, including that of Prime Minister, Speaker of Parliament and Leader of the Opposition.

Female workforce participation in Bangladesh is among the highest in the Muslim world, at 59%.^[283] Women dominate blue collar jobs in the Bangladeshi garment industry. Agriculture, social services, healthcare and education are also major occupations for Bangladeshi women; while employment in white collar jobs has steadily increased. Bangladesh is the first country in South Asia to achieve gender parity in primary education, and ensures free education for girls up to Grade 12. Women continue to suffer challenges such as lack of equal pay and patriarchal social regimes.

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Bangladesh

The architectural traditions of Bangladesh have a 2,500-year-old heritage.^[284] Terracotta architecture is a distinct feature of Bengal. Pre-Islamic Bengali architecture reached its pinnacle during the Pala Empire, when the Pala School of Sculptural Art established grand structures such as the Somapura Mahavihara. Islamic architecture began developing under the Bengal Sultanate, when local terracotta styles influenced medieval mosque construction. The Adina Mosque of undivided Bengal was the largest mosque built in the Indian subcontinent.

The Sixty Dome Mosque was the largest medieval mosque built in Bangladesh, and is a fine example of Turkic-Bengali architecture. The Mughal style replaced indigenous architecture when Bengal became a province of the Mughal Empire and influenced the development of urban housing. The Kantajew Temple is an example of late medieval Hindu temple architecture. Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, based on Indo-Islamic styles, flourished during the British period. The zamindar gentry in Bangladesh built numerous Indo-Saracenic palaces and country mansions, such as the Ahsan Manzil, Tajhat Palace, Dighapatia Palace, Puthia Rajbari and Natore Rajbari.

Bengali vernacular architecture is noted for pioneering the bungalow. Bangladeshi villages consist of thatched roofed houses made of natural materials like mud, straw, wood and bamboo. In modern times, village bungalows are increasingly made of tin.

Muzharul Islam was the pioneer of Bangladeshi modern architecture. His varied works set the course of modern architectural practice in the country. Islam brought leading global architects, including Louis Kahn, Richard Neutra, Stanley Tigerman, Paul Rudolph, Robert Boughey and Konstantinos Doxiadis, to work in erstwhile East Pakistan. Louis Kahn was chosen to design the National Parliament Complex in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar. Kahn's monumental designs, combining regional red brick aesthetics, his own concrete and marble brutalism and the use of lakes to represent Bengali geography, are regarded as one of the masterpieces of the 20th century. In more recent times, award winning architects like Rafiq Azam have set the course of contemporary architecture by adopting influences from Islam and Kahns' works.

Architecture of Bangladesh
Sona Mosque
Puthia Temple Complex
Islamic terracotta on the Atia Mosque
Kantajew Temple
Khan Mohammad Mridha Mosque
Mughal architecture in Dhaka

Performance arts

Theatre in Bangladesh includes various forms, with a history dating back to the 4th century AD.^[285] It includes narrative forms, song and dance forms, supra-personae forms, performances with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and processional forms.^[285] The Jatra is the most popular form of Bengali folk theatre. The dance traditions of Bangladesh include indigenous tribal and Bengali dance forms, as well as classical Indian dances, including the Kathak, Odissi and the Manipuri dances.

The music of Bangladesh features the Baul mystical tradition, listed by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of Intangible Cultural Heritage.^[286] Numerous lyric based musical traditions exist including Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya, varying from one region to the next. Folk music is accompanied by the ektara, an instrument with only one string. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. Bengali classical music includes Tagore songs and Nazrul geeti. Bangladesh has a rich tradition of Indian classical music, which uses instruments like the sitar, tabla, sarod and santoor.^[287]

Bangladesh has a rich heritage of ancient Indian and Islamic art, including in painting, sculpture and architecture. Terracotta works are a distinctive feature of Bengali art. Bengal also influenced the art of China, Japan, South East Asia and Tibet. The Pala-Sena School is regarded as the high point of ancient Bengali art. Islamic medieval art was highly influenced by Persian art, particularly in architecture, gardening and miniature painting. The Mughal Emperors patronized the weaving of artistic Bengali silk and muslin textiles, including the famed Jamdani muslin. The Nawabs of Bengal were noted for patronizing ivory craftsmanship.

Modern Bangladeshi art began with the works of Zainul Abedin, a renowned painter. Other notable painters include SM Sultan, Mohammad Kibria, Shahabuddin Ahmed, Quamrul Hassan, Qayyum Chowdhury and Kanak Chanpa Chakma. Notably early modern sculptors included Novera Ahmed and Nitun Kundu. The country has a thriving contemporary art scene which has received international acclaim. The Dhaka Art Summit is a biannual event showcasing Bangladeshi works to an international audience.

Bangladeshi martial arts evolved in villages where zamindars employed large private armies to protect their landholdings. The Lathi khela and Boli Khela are two major forms of Bengali martial arts.

Textiles

Cuisine

Main articles: Bengali cuisine and Bangladeshi cuisine

White rice is the staple of Bangladeshi cuisine, along with many vegetables and lentils. Rice preparations also include Bengali biryanis, pulaos, and khichuris. Mustard sauce, ghee, sunflower oil and fruit chutneys are widely used in Bangladeshi cooking. Fish is the main source of protein in Bengali cuisine. The Hilsa is the national fish and immensely popular across Bangladesh. Other fishes eaten include rohu, butterfish, catfish, tilapia and barramundi. Fish eggs are a gourmet delicacy. Seafood holds an important place in Bengali cuisine, especially lobsters, shrimps and dried fish. Meat consumption includes chicken, beef, mutton, venison, duck and squab. In Chittagong, Mezban feasts are a popular tradition featuring the serving of hot beef curry. In Sylhet, the shatkora lemons are used to marinate dishes. In the tribal Hill Tracts, bamboo shoot cooking is prevalent. Bangladesh has a vast spread of desserts, including distinctive sweets like Rôshogolla, Rôshomalai, Chomchom, Mishti Doi and Kalojaam. Pithas are traditional boiled desserts made with rice or fruits. Halwa is served during religious festivities. Naan, paratha, luchi and bakarkhani are the main local breads. Black tea is the national beverage and offered to guests as a gesture of welcome. Kebabs are widely popular across Bangladesh, particularly seekh kebabs, chicken tikka and shashliks.

Bangladesh shares its culinary heritage with the neighboring Indian state of West Bengal. The two regions have several differences, however. In Muslim-majority Bangladesh, meat consumption is greater; whereas in Hindu-majority West Bengal, vegetarianism is more prevalent. The Bangladeshi diaspora dominates the South Asian restaurant industry in many Western countries, particularly in the United Kingdom.

Festivals

Main article: Public holidays in Bangladesh

The annual Bengali New Year parade.

Pohela Boishakh, the Bengali new year, is the major festival of Bengali culture and sees widespread festivities. Of the major holidays celebrated in Bangladesh, only Pohela Boishakh comes without any preexisting expectations (specific religious identity, culture of gift-giving, etc.). Unlike holidays like Eid al-Fitr, where dressing up in lavish clothes has become a norm, or Christmas where exchanging gifts has become an integral part of the holiday, Pohela Boishakh is really about celebrating the simpler, rural roots of the Bengal. As a result, more people can participate in the festivities together without the burden of having to reveal one's class, religion, or financial capacity. Other cultural festivals include Nabonno, and Poush porbon (festival of Poush), both Bengali harvest festivals.

The Muslim holidays of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, the Bengali New Year, Independence day, Victory Day, the Hindu festivals of Durga Puja and Krishna Janmashtami, the Buddhist festival of Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, and Christmas, called Borodin (" the Great day"), are national holidays in Bangladesh and see the most widespread celebrations in the country.

Alongside these are national days like the remembrance of 21 February 1952 Language Movement Day (International Mother Language Day), Independence Day and Victory Day. On Language Movement Day, people congregate at the Shaheed Minar in Dhaka to remember the national heroes of the Bengali Language Movement, and at the Jatiyo Smriti Soudho on Independence Day and Victory Day to remember the national heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War. These occasions are observed with public ceremonies, parades, rallies by citizens, political speeches, fairs, concerts, and various other public and private events celebrating the history and traditions of Bangladesh. TV and radio stations broadcast special programs and patriotic songs. And many schools and colleges organise fairs, festivals, and concerts in which citizens from all levels of society can participate.

Sports

Main article: Sports in Bangladesh

The Bangladesh cricket team at the Mirpur Stadium

Cricket is one of the most popular sports in Bangladesh, followed by football. The national cricket team participated in their first Cricket World Cup in 1999, and the following year was granted elite Test cricket status. But they have struggled to date, recording only ten Test match victories: eight against Zimbabwe with five in 2005 and three in 2014, the other two came in a 2-0 series victory over the West Indies in 2009.^[291]

The team has been more successful in One Day International cricket. In July 2010, they celebrated their first ever win over England in any form of match. Later in 2010, they beat New Zealand for the first time. In late 2012, they won a five-match home ODI series 3-2 against a full-strength West Indies National team. In 2011, Bangladesh successfully co-hosted the ICC Cricket World Cup 2011 with India and Sri Lanka. In 2012, the country hosted the Asia Cup. The team beat India and Sri Lanka but failed to keep the reputation in the final game against Pakistan. However, it was the first time Bangladesh had advanced to the final of any major cricket tournament. They participated at the 2010 Asian Games in Guangzhou, defeating Afghanistan to claim their Gold Medal in the first ever cricket tournament held in the Asian Games. Bangladeshi cricketer Sakib Al Hasan is no.1 on the ICC's all-rounder rankings in all three formats of the cricket.^[292]

Kabaddi is a very popular game in Bangladesh, considered the national game.^[293] Other popular sports include field hockey, tennis, badminton, handball, basketball, volleyball, chess, shooting, angling. The National Sports Council regulates 42 different sporting federations.^[294]

Bangladesh has 5 grandmasters in chess. Among them, Niaz Murshed was the first grandmaster in South Asia. In another achievement, Margarita Mamun, a Russian rhythmic gymnast of Bangladeshi origin,became world champion in 2013 and 2014.

Media and cinema

Main articles: Media of Bangladesh and Cinema of Bangladesh

The Bangladeshi press is diverse, outspoken and privately owned. Over 200 newspapers are published in the country. Bangladesh Betar is the state-run radio service.^[295] The British Broadcasting Corporation operates the popular BBC Bangla news and current affairs service. Bengali broadcasts from Voice of America are also very popular. Bangladesh Television (BTV) is the state-owned television network. There more than 20 privately owned television networks, including several news channels. Freedom of the media remains a major concern, due to government attempts at censorship and harassment of journalists.

The cinema of Bangladesh dates back to 1898, when films began screening at the Crown Theatre in Dacca. The first bioscope in the subcontinent was established in Dacca that year. The Dhaka Nawab Family patronized the production of several silent films in the 1920s and 30s. In 1931, the East Bengal Cinematograph Society released the first full-length feature film in Bangladesh, titled the Last Kiss. The first feature film in East Pakistan, Mukh O Mukhosh, was released in 1956. During the 1960s, 25-30 films were produced annually in Dacca. By the 2000s, Bangladesh produced 80-100 films a year. While the Bangladeshi film industry has achieved limited commercial success; the country has produced notable independent filmmakers. Zahir Raihan was a prominent documentary-maker who was assassinated in 1971. The late Tareque Masud is regarded as one of Bangladesh's outstanding directors due to his numerous productions on historical and social issues. Masud was honored by FIPRESCI at the Cannes Film Festival in 2002 for his film The Clay Bird. Tanvir Mokammel, Mostofa Sarwar Farooki, Humayun Ahmed, Alamgir Kabir and Chashi Nazrul Islam are other prominent directors of Bangladesh cinema.

Rickshaws

Museums and libraries

Main articles: Museums in Bangladesh and List of libraries in Bangladesh

The Tajhat Palace Museum in Rangpur

Northbrook Hall, a public library opened in 1882 with rare book collections from the British Raj.^[298]

The Varendra Research Museum is the oldest museum in Bangladesh. It houses important collections from both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, including the sculptures of the Pala-Sena School of Art and the Indus Valley Civilization; as well as Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian manuscripts and inscriptions. The Ahsan Manzil, the former residence of the Nawab of Dhaka, is a national museum housing collections from the British Raj. It was the site of the founding conference of the All India Muslim League and hosted many British Viceroys in Dhaka.

The Tajhat Palace Museum preserves artifacts of the rich cultural heritage of North Bengal, including Hindu-Buddhist sculptures and Islamic manuscripts. The Mymensingh Museum houses the personal antique collections of Bengali aristocrats in central Bengal. The Ethnological Museum of Chittagong showcases the lifestyle of various tribes in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh National Museum is located in Ramna, Dhaka and has a rich collection of antiquities. The Liberation War Museum documents the Bangladeshi struggle for independence and the 1971 genocide.

In ancient times, manuscripts were written on palm leaves, tree barks, parchment vellum and terracotta plates and preserved at monasteries known as viharas. The Hussain Shahi dynasty established royal libraries during the Bengal Sultanate. Libraries were established in each district of Bengal by the zamindar gentry during the Bengal Renaissance in the 19th-century. The trend of establishing libraries continued until the beginning of World War II. In 1854, four major public libraries were opened, including the Bogra Woodburn Library, the Rangpur Public Library, the Jessore Institute Public Library and the Barisal Public Library.

The Northbrook Hall Public Library was established in Dacca in 1882 in honour of Lord Northbrook, the Governor General. Other libraries established in the British period included the Victoria Public Library, Natore (1901), the Sirajganj Public Library (1882), the Rajshahi Public Library (1884), the Comilla Birchandra Library (1885), the Shah Makhdum Institute Public Library, Rajshahi (1891), the Noakhali Town Hall Public Library (1896), the Prize Memorial Library, Sylhet (1897), the Chittagong Municipality Public Library (1904) and the Varendra Research Library (1910). The Great Bengal Library Association was formed in 1925.^[299] The Central Public Library of Dhaka was established in 1959. The National Library of Bangladesh was established in 1972. The World Literature Center, founded by Ramon Magsaysay Award winner Abdullah Abu Sayeed, is noted for operating numerous mobile libraries across Bangladesh and was awarded the UNESCO Jon Amos Comenius Medal.

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Notes

↑ Bengali is the sole official language and also the de jure national language. Alongside Bengali, English is often used for official purposes, especially in the judiciary.

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↑ Bangladesh, citypopulation.de
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1 2 3 4 T. Neville Postlethwaite (1988). The Encyclopedia of Comparative Education and National Systems of Education. Pergamon Press. p. 130. ISBN 0-08-030853-8.
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Cited sources

Baxter, C (1997). Bangladesh, from a Nation to a State. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3632-5. OCLC 47885632.

External links

Official website
Bangladesh travel guide from Wikivoyage
Bangladesh entry at The World Factbook
Bangladesh at DMOZ
Wikimedia Atlas of Bangladesh
Banglapedia Regional Map Data
World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Bangladesh, 2007

Bangladesh articles

History

Timeline

Ancient	Vedic period Anga Vanga Pundra Suhma Kingdom Magadha Legendary kings of Magadha Pradyota Shishunaga Nanda Gangaridai Maurya Empire Shunga Empire Kanva dynasty Gupta Empire

Middle Ages	Kamboja Pala Sena Islamic rulers in South Asia Delhi Sultanate Khilji dynasty Bengal Sultanate Sur Empire Baro-Bhuyan

Mughal period	Mughal Bengal Principality of Bengal Nawabs Porto Grande De Bengala Battle of Plassey

Colonial period	Black Hole of Calcutta Famine of 1770 Sepoy Rebellion Bengali renaissance Partition of Bengal (1905) East Bengal Indian independence movement Muslim League Pakistan Movement Prime Minister of Bengal Lahore Resolution Famine of 1943 Direct Action Day Partition of Bengal (1947)

Pakistan era	East Pakistan Language movement Legislative election in 1954 Six point movement 1969 Uprising General election in 1970 Proclamation of Independence Bangladesh Liberation War Provisional Government Genocide Rape Timeline

Bangladesh	Famine of 1974 Military coups 1975 1981 1982 Political crisis in 2006–08 Bangladesh Rifles revolt

By topic

Geography

Administrative	Divisions Districts Sub-districts

By type	Cities Islands Lakes Mountains National parks Rivers

Places	Bay of Bengal Bengal Fan Chittagong Hill Tracts Cox's Bazar Ganges Basin Ganges Delta Jat Area Sundarbans Reserve Forest

Politics

Government	Cabinet Elections Foreign relations Jatiyo Shongshod (parliament) Constituencies Speaker Local government City Corporations Municipalities Upazila Parishads Union Councils Political parties President Prime Minister

Law	Chief Justice Constitution High Court Human rights Freedom of religion LGBT rights International Crimes Tribunal Supreme Court

Law enforcement	Ansar Intelligence NSI Special Branch Police CID RAB SPBn Special Security Force Village Defence Party

Military	Air Force Army Navy DGFI Paramilitary Border Guard Coast Guard President Guard Regiment

Economy

Society

Bangladeshis Names Crime Demographics Education Schools Universities Ethnic groups Health Religion Society

Culture	Architecture Baul Calendar Cinema Cuisine Ghosts Language Literature Music Public holidays Sports Theatre TV and radio channels Weddings

Symbols	Amar Sonar Bangla Baitul Mukarram Chol Chol Chol Dhakeshwari Temple Flag Government Seal Ilish Jackfruit Jamuna Bridge Jatiyo Sangsad Bhaban Jatiyo Smriti Soudho Kabaddi Mango tree National Emblem Oriental magpie-robin Personification Royal Bengal Tiger Water lily

Book
Category
Portal
WikiProject

Geographic locale

Countries and dependencies of Asia

Sovereign states

States with limited recognition

Dependencies and special
administrative regions

Australia	Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands

China	Hong Kong Macau

United Kingdom	Akrotiri and Dhekelia British Indian Ocean Territory

International membership

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

Agreements	South Asian Free Trade Area

Summits	Past summits Addu 2011 Kathmandu 2014 Islamabad 2016

Members	Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka

Observers	Australia China European Union Iran Japan Mauritius Myanmar South Korea United States

Guest	South Africa

Related Articles	SAARC satellite

Members of the Commonwealth of Nations

Sovereign states
(Members)

Dependencies
of Members

Australia	Ashmore and Cartier Islands Australian Antarctic Territory Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Coral Sea Islands Heard Island and McDonald Islands Norfolk Island

New Zealand	Cook Islands Niue Ross Dependency Tokelau

United Kingdom	Akrotiri and Dhekelia Anguilla Bermuda British Antarctic Territory British Indian Ocean Territory British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Montserrat Pitcairn Islands St. Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Turks and Caicos Islands

Source: Commonwealth Secretariat - Member States

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)

Members

Suspended

Syria

Observers

Countries and territories	Bosnia and Herzegovina Central African Republic Northern Cyprus¹ Russia Thailand

Muslim communities	Moro National Liberation Front

International organizations	Economic Cooperation Organization African Union Arab League Non-Aligned Movement United Nations

¹ As the "Turkish Cypriot State".

Authority control	WorldCat Identities VIAF: 252680635 LCCN: n81063207 GND: 4130903-0 BNF: cb11943135b (data) HDS: 3403 NDL: 00560507

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Bangladesh

Etymology

History

Ancient and classical Bengal

Islamic Bengal

British Bengal

After British Independence

Bangladesh Liberation War

Since 1971

Geography

Climate

Biodiversity

Politics

Government

Foreign affairs

Military

Human rights and corruption

Administrative divisions

Economy

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

Transport

Energy

Water

Science and technology

Demographics

Urban centres

Languages

Religion

Education

Health

Culture

Literature

Women and feminism

Architecture

Performance arts

Textiles

Cuisine

Festivals

Sports

Media and cinema

Rickshaws

Museums and libraries

See also

References

Notes

References

Cited sources

Further reading

External links