RELA

V-rel avian reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A
PDB rendering based on 1bft.
Available structures PDB Ortholog search: PDBe, RCSB List of PDB id codes 1NFI​, 2LSP​, 2O61​, 3GUT​, 3QXY​, 3RC0​, 4KV1​, 4KV4​
Identifiers
Symbols	RELA ; NFKB3; p65
External IDs	OMIM: 164014 MGI: 103290 HomoloGene: 32064 ChEMBL: 5533 GeneCards: RELA Gene
Gene ontology Molecular function • RNA polymerase II regulatory region sequence-specific DNA binding • RNA polymerase II core promoter proximal region sequence-specific DNA binding • RNA polymerase II distal enhancer sequence-specific DNA binding • transcriptional activator activity, RNA polymerase II core promoter proximal region sequence-specific binding • transcriptional repressor activity, RNA polymerase II core promoter proximal region sequence-specific binding • transcriptional activator activity, RNA polymerase II distal enhancer sequence-specific binding • DNA binding • chromatin binding • transcription factor activity, sequence-specific DNA binding • transcription factor activity, RNA polymerase II distal enhancer sequence-specific binding • protein binding • transcription factor binding • protein kinase binding • chromatin DNA binding • ubiquitin protein ligase binding • protein complex binding • activating transcription factor binding • phosphate ion binding • identical protein binding • protein homodimerization activity • actinin binding • histone deacetylase binding • transcription regulatory region DNA binding • protein heterodimerization activity • protein N-terminus binding • NF-kappaB binding • repressing transcription factor binding • ankyrin repeat binding Cellular component • nucleus • nucleoplasm • transcription factor complex • cytoplasm • cytosol • I-kappaB/NF-kappaB complex • NF-kappaB complex Biological process • negative regulation of transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter • liver development • hair follicle development • stimulatory C-type lectin receptor signaling pathway • toll-like receptor signaling pathway • MyD88-dependent toll-like receptor signaling pathway • MyD88-independent toll-like receptor signaling pathway • acetaldehyde metabolic process • transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter • inflammatory response • cellular defense response • I-kappaB kinase/NF-kappaB signaling • aging • positive regulation of cell proliferation • organ morphogenesis • response to organic substance • response to UV-B • positive regulation of Schwann cell differentiation • viral process • cytokine-mediated signaling pathway • membrane protein intracellular domain proteolysis • positive regulation of chondrocyte differentiation • positive regulation of type I interferon production • response to muramyl dipeptide • response to progesterone • response to insulin • response to cobalamin • toll-like receptor 2 signaling pathway • toll-like receptor 3 signaling pathway • toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway • toll-like receptor 5 signaling pathway • toll-like receptor 9 signaling pathway • toll-like receptor 10 signaling pathway • TRIF-dependent toll-like receptor signaling pathway • response to muscle stretch • NIK/NF-kappaB signaling • Fc-epsilon receptor signaling pathway • toll-like receptor TLR1:TLR2 signaling pathway • toll-like receptor TLR6:TLR2 signaling pathway • negative regulation of protein catabolic process • response to drug • negative regulation of apoptotic process • positive regulation of I-kappaB kinase/NF-kappaB signaling • response to amino acid • response to morphine • positive regulation of interleukin-12 biosynthetic process • innate immune response • negative regulation of transcription, DNA-templated • positive regulation of transcription, DNA-templated • positive regulation of transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter • negative regulation of insulin receptor signaling pathway • neurotrophin TRK receptor signaling pathway • regulation of inflammatory response • T cell receptor signaling pathway • positive regulation of NF-kappaB transcription factor activity • response to cAMP • defense response to virus • cellular response to hydrogen peroxide • nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 2 signaling pathway • response to interleukin-1 • cellular response to lipopolysaccharide • cellular response to nicotine • cellular response to interleukin-1 • cellular response to interleukin-6 • cellular response to tumor necrosis factor • cellular response to peptide hormone stimulus • negative regulation of NIK/NF-kappaB signaling • positive regulation of miRNA metabolic process • negative regulation of extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway Sources: Amigo / QuickGO
RNA expression pattern
More reference expression data
Orthologs
Species	Human	Mouse
Entrez	5970	19697
Ensembl	ENSG00000173039	ENSMUSG00000024927
UniProt	Q04206	Q04207
RefSeq (mRNA)	NM_001145138	NM_009045
RefSeq (protein)	NP_001138610	NP_033071
Location (UCSC)	Chr 11: 65.65 – 65.66 Mb	Chr 19: 5.64 – 5.65 Mb
PubMed search

Transcription factor p65 also known as nuclear factor NF-kappa-B p65 subunit is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RELA gene.^[1]

RELA, also known as p65, is a REL-associated protein involved in NF-κB heterodimer formation, nuclear translocation and activation. NF-κB is an essential transcription factor complex involved in all types of cellular processes, including cellular metabolism, chemotaxis, etc. Phosphorylation and acetylation of RELA are crucial post-translational modifications required for NF-κB activation. RELA has also been shown to modulate immune responses, and activation of RELA is positively associated with multiple types of cancer.

Gene and expression

RELA, or v-rel avian reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A, is also known as p65 or NFKB3.^[2] It is located on chromosome 11 q13, and its nucleotide sequence is 1473 nucleotide long.^[3] RELA protein has four isoforms, the longest and the predominant one being 551 amino acids. RELA is expressed alongside p50 in various cell types, including epithelial/endothelial cells and neuronal tissues.^[4]

Structure

RELA is one member of the NF-κB family, one of the most essential transcription factors under intensive study. Seven proteins encoded by five genes are involved in the NF-κB complex, namely p105, p100, p50, p52, RELA, c-REL and RELB.^[5] Like other proteins in this complex, RELA contains a N-terminal REL-homology domain (RHD), and also a C-terminal transactivation domain (TAD). RHD is involved in DNA binding, dimerization and NF-κB/REL inhibitor interaction. On the other hand, TAD is responsible for interacting with the basal transcription complex including many coactivators of transcription such as TBP, TFIIB and CREB-CBP.^[5] RELA and p50 is the mostly commonly found heterodimer complex among NF-κB homodimers and heterodimers, and is the functional component participating in nuclear translocation and activation of NF-κB.

Phosphorylation

Phosphorylation of RELA plays a key role in regulating NF-κB activation and function. Subsequent to NF-κB nuclear translocation, RELA undergoes site-specific post-translational modifications to further enhance the NF-κB function as a transcription factor. RELA can either be phosphorylated in the RHD region or the TAD region, attracting different interaction partners. Triggered by lipopolysaccharide, PKA specifically phosphorylates serine 276 in the RHD domain in the cytoplasm, controlling NF-κB DNA-binding and oligomerization.^[6] On the other hand, mitogen and stress-activated kinase 1 (MSK1) are also able to phosphorylate RELA at residue 276 under TNFα induction in the nucleus, increasing NF-κB response at the transcriptional level.^[7] Phosphorylation of serine 311 by PKCζ serves the same purpose.^[8] Two residues in the TAD region are targeted by phosphorylation. After IL-1or TNFα stimulation, serine 529 is phosphorylated by casein kinase II (CKII),^[9] while serine 536 is phosphorylated by IκB kinases (IKKs). Induced by p53, ribosomal subunit kinase-1 also has the ability to phosphorylate serine 536.^[10] A couple of other kinases are also able to phosphorylate RELA at different conditions, including glycogen-synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β), AKT/phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and NF-κB activating kinase (NAK, i.e. TANK-binding kinase-1 (TBK1) and TRAF2-associated kinase (T2K)).^[5] The fact that RELA can be modified by a collection of kinases via phosphorylation at different sites/regions within the protein under different stimulations might suggest a synergistic effect of the these modifications. Phosphorylation at these sites enhances NF-κB transcriptional response via tightened binding to transcription coactivators. For example, CBP and p300 binding to RELA are enhanced when serine 276 or 311 is phosphorylated.^[5] Status of several phosphorylation sites determines RELA stability mediated by the ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. ^[11][12][13]Cell-type-specific phosphorylation is also observed for RELA. Multiple-site phosphorylation is common in endothelial cells, and different cell types may contain different stimuli, leading to targeted phosphorylation of RELA by different kinases. For instance, IKK2 is found to be mainly responsible for phosphorylating serine 536 in monocytes and macrophages, or in CD40 receptor binding in hepatic stellate cells.^[4] IKK1 functions as the major kinase phosphorylating serine 536 under different stimuli, such as the ligand activation of the lymphotoxin-β receptor (LTβR).^[4]

Acetylation

In vivo studies revealed that RELA is also under acetylation modification in the nucleus, which is just as important as phosphorylation as a post-translational modification of proteins. Lysines 218, 221 and 310 are acetylation targets within RELA, and response to actylation is site-specific.^[5] For instance, lysine 221 acetylation facilitates RELA dissociation from IκBα and enhances its DNA-binding affinity. Lysine 310 acetylation is indispensable for the full transcriptional activity of RELA, but does not affect its DNA-binding ability. Hypothesis about RELA acetylation suggests acetylation aids its subsequent recognition by transcriptional co-activators with bromodomains, which are specialized in recognizing acetylated lysine residues.^[5] Lysine 122 and 123 acetylation are found to be negatively correlated with RELA transcriptional activation. Unknown mechanisms mediate the acetylation of RELA possibly using p300/CBP and p300/CBP factor associated coactivators under TNFα or phorbol myristate acetate (PMF) stimulation both in vivo and in vitro.^[5] RELA is also under the control of deactylation via HDAC, and HDAC3 is the mediator of this process both in vivo and in vitro.^[4][5]

Methylation

Methylation of lysine 218 and 221 together or lysine 37 alone in the RHD domain of RELA can lead to increased response to cytokines such as IL-1 in mammalian cell culture.^[14]

Interactions

As the prototypical heterodimer complex member of the NF-κB, together with p50, RELA/p65 interacts with various proteins in both the cytoplasm and in the nucleus during the process of classical NF-κB activation and nuclear translocation. In the inactive state, RELA/p50 complex is mainly sequestered by IκBα in the cytosol. TNFα, LPS and other factors serve as activation inducers, followed by phosphorylation at residue 32 and 36 of IκBα, leading to rapid degradation of IκBα via the ubiquitin-proteasomal system and subsequent release of RELA/p50 complex.^[5] RELA nuclear localization signal used to be sequestered by IκBα is now exposed, and rapid translocation of the NF-κB occurs. In parallel, there is a non-classical NF-κB activation pathway involving the proteolytic cleavage of p100 into p52 instead of p50. This process does not require RELA, hence will not be discussed in detail here.^[5] After NF-κB nuclear localization due to TNFα stimulation, p50/RELA heterodimer will function as a transcription factor and bind to a variety of genes involved in all kinds of biological processes, such as leukocyte activation/chemotaxis, negative regulation of TNFIKK pathway, cellular metabolism, antigen processing, just to name a few .^[15] Phosphorylation of RELA at different residues also enables its interaction with CDKs and P-TEFb. Phosphorylation at serine 276 in RELA allows its interaction with P-TEFb containing CDK9 and cyclin T1 subunits, and phospho-ser276 RELA-P-TEFb complex is necessary for IL-8 and Gro-β activation.^[15] Another mechanism is involved in the activation of genes preloaded with Pol II in a RELA serine 276 phosphorylation independent manner.

RELA has been shown to interact with:

• APBA2,^[16]
• AHR,^[17][18]
• ASCC3,^[19]
• BRCA1,^[20]
• BTRC,^[21]
• c-Fos,^[22]
• c-Jun,^[22]
• C22orf25,^[23]
• CDK9,^[24]
• CEBPB,^[25][26]
• CREBBP,^{[27][28][29][30][31][32]}
• CSNK2A1,^[33]
• CSNK2A2,^[33]
• DHX9,^[34]
• EP300,^[31][35]
• ETHE1,^[36]
• FUS,^[37]
• GCN5,^[38]
• HDAC1,^[28][35][39]
• HDAC2,^[35][40]
• HDAC3,^[41]
• ING4,^[42]
• IκBα,^{[21][35][41][43][44][45][46]}
• KLF5,^[47]
• MDM2,^[48]
• MEN1,^[49]
• MSK1,^[7]
• MTPN,^[50]
• NCF1,^[51]
• NFKB1,^[52][53]
• NFKB2,^[52][54]
• NFKBIB,^[55][56]
• NFKBIE,^[57]
• NR3C1,^[58][59][60]
• NCOR2,^[61][62]
• PARP1,^[63]
• PDLIM2,^[64]
• PIAS3,^[27]
• PIM1,^[13]
• PIN1,^[11]
• PKA,^[65]
• POU2F1,^[66]
• PPARG,^[67]
• PPP1R13L,^[68][69]
• PRKCZ,^[70]
• REL,^[44][52][71]
• RFC1,^[72]
• RNF25,^[73]
• SOCS1,^[11][74][75]
• SP1,^[76][77]
• STAT3,^[78][79]
• TAF4B,^[80]
• TBP,^[81][82]
• TP53,^[79] and
• TRIB3.^[83]

Role in immune system

Gene knockout of NF-κB genes via homologous recombination in mice showed the role of these components in innate and adaptive immune responses. RELA knockout mice is embryonic lethal due to liver apoptosis.^[4] Lymphocyte activation failure is also observed, suggesting that RELA is indispensable in the proper development of the immune system. In comparison, deletion of other REL-related genes will not cause embryonic development failure, though different levels of defects are also noted.^[4] The fact that cytokines such as TNFα and IL-1 can stimulate the activation of RELA also supports its participation in immune response. In general, RELA participates in adaptive immunity and responses to invading pathogens via NF-κB activation. Mice without individual NF-κB proteins are deficient in B- and T-cell activation and proliferation, cytoline production and isotype switching.^[4] Mutations in RELA is found responsible for inflammatory bowel disease as well.^[4]

Cancer

NF-κB/RELA activation has been found to be correlated with cancer development, suggesting the potential of RELA as a cancer biomarker. Specific modification patterns of RELA have also been observed in many cancer types.

Prostate

RELA may have a potential role as biomarker for prostate cancer progression and metastases, as suggested by the association found between RELA nuclear localization and prostate cancer aggressiveness and biochemical recurrence.^[84]

Thyroid

Strong correlation between nuclear localization of RELA and clinicopathological parameters for papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC), suggesting the role of NF-κB activation in tumor growth and aggressiveness in PTC.^[85] Other than usage as an biomarker, serine 536 phosphorylation in RELA is also correlated with nuclear translocation and the expression of some transactivating genes such as COX-2, IL-8 and GST-pi in follicular thyroid carcinomas via morphoproteomic analysis.^[86]

Leukemia

Mutations in the transactivation domain of RELA can lead to decrease in transactivating ability and this mutation can be found in lymphoid neoplasia.^[87]

Head and Neck

Nuclear localization of NF-κB/RELA is positively correlated with tumor micrometastases into lymph and blood and negatively correlated with patient survival outcome in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC).^[88] This suggests a role of NF-κB/RELA as a possible target for targeted-therapy.

Breast

There is both a physical and a functional association between RELA and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), and the subsequent activation of c-myc gene transcription in breast cancer cells.^[17] Another paper reported interactions between estrogen receptor (ER) and NF-κB members, including p50 and RELA. It is shown that ERα interacts with both p50 and RELA in vitro and in vivo, and RELA antibody can reduce ERα:ERE complex formation. The paper claims a mutual repression between ER and NF-κB.^[89]

References

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Further reading

• Baldwin AS (1996). "The NF-kappa B and I kappa B proteins: new discoveries and insights". Annual Review of Immunology 14: 649–83. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.14.1.649. PMID 8717528.
• Bottex-Gauthier C, Pollet S, Favier A, Vidal DR (Apr 2002). "[The Rel/NF-kappa-B transcription factors: complex role in cell regulation]". Pathologie-Biologie 50 (3): 204–11. doi:10.1016/s0369-8114(02)00289-4. PMID 11980335.
• Garg A, Aggarwal BB (Jun 2002). "Nuclear transcription factor-kappaB as a target for cancer drug development". Leukemia 16 (6): 1053–68. doi:10.1038/sj.leu.2402482. PMID 12040437.
• Clarke R, Liu MC, Bouker KB, Gu Z, Lee RY, Zhu Y, Skaar TC, Gomez B, O'Brien K, Wang Y, Hilakivi-Clarke LA (Oct 2003). "Antiestrogen resistance in breast cancer and the role of estrogen receptor signaling". Oncogene 22 (47): 7316–39. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1206937. PMID 14576841.
• Bhatt D, Ghosh S (Feb 2014). "Regulation of the NF-κB-Mediated Transcription of Inflammatory Genes". Frontiers in Immunology 5 (71). doi:10.3389/fimmu.2014.00071. PMID 24611065.

External links

• RELA protein, human at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)